Ka pilina ma waena o ka Ethno-Religious Conflict and Economic Growth: Analysis of the Scholarly Literature
Hōʻuluʻulu:
Hōʻike kēia noiʻi i ka nānā ʻana o ka noiʻi naʻauao e kālele ana i ka pilina ma waena o ka hakakā ʻano hoʻomana a me ka ulu waiwai. Hoʻomaopopo ka pepa i nā mea komo o ka ʻaha kūkā, nā kumu aʻo, nā alakaʻi ʻoihana, a me nā lālā o ke kaiāulu e pili ana i ka palapala naʻauao a me ke kaʻina noiʻi i hoʻohana ʻia i ka loiloi ʻana i ka pilina ma waena o ka hakakā ethno-religious a me ka ulu waiwai. ʻO ke ʻano i hoʻohana ʻia i loko o kēia noiʻi ʻo ia ka loiloi o nā ʻatikala naʻauao, loiloi ʻia e nā hoa e kālele ana i ka hakakā ʻano hoʻomana a me ka ulu waiwai. Ua koho ʻia nā palapala noiʻi mai ka ʻikepili naʻauao, nā ʻikepili pūnaewele a me nā ʻatikala a pau e hoʻokō i ke koi o ka nānā ʻana i nā hoa. Ua helu ʻia kēlā me kēia ʻatikala e like me ka ʻikepili a/a i ʻole nā mea hoʻololi i komo i ka paio, ka hopena waiwai, ke ʻano i hoʻohana ʻia i ka nānā ʻana i ka pilina ma waena o ka hakakā ethno-religious a me ka hoʻokele waiwai, a me ke kumu hoʻohālike. ʻOiai he mea nui ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai i ka hoʻolālā waiwai a me ka hoʻomohala ʻana i nā kulekele, ʻo ka nānā ʻana i nā palapala naʻauao e pili ana i kēia kaʻina hana. ʻO nā paio a me nā lilo no kēia mau hakakā e pili ana i ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai i ka honua e ulu nei, a ua aʻo ʻia ma nā ʻāina like ʻole a me nā kūlana, e like me nā kaiāulu malihini Kina, Kina-Pakistan, Pakistan, India a me Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Israel, Osh hakakā, NATO, ka neʻe ʻana, ka lāhui a me ke kaua kīwila, a me ke kaua a me ka mākeke kūʻai. Hōʻike kēia pepa i kahi ʻano no ka loiloi ʻana i nā ʻatikala naʻauao e pili ana i ka pilina ma waena o ka hakakā ʻano hoʻomana a me ka ʻike ulu waiwai e pili ana i ke ala o ka pilina. Hoʻohui ʻia, hāʻawi ia i kumu hoʻohālike no ka loiloi ʻana i ka pilina o ka hakakā ethno-hoʻomana a i ʻole ka hana ʻino a me ka ulu waiwai. Hōʻike nā ʻāpana ʻehā i nā ʻāina kūikawā no kēia noiʻi.
Hoʻoiho i kēia ʻatikala
Manaʻo ʻia no Citation:
Kominkiewicz, FB (2022). ʻO ka pilina ma waena o ka hakakā ethno-religious a me ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai: Ka nānā ʻana i ka palapala ʻepekema. Ka Nupepa o ka Noho Hookahi, 7(1), 38-57.
ʻIkepili ʻatikala:
@ʻatikala{Kominkiewicz2022}
Title = {Ka pilina ma waena o ka ʻEthno-Religious Conflict and Economic Growth: Analysis of the Scholarly Literature}
Mea kākau = {Frances Bernard Kominkiewicz}
Url = {https://icermediation.org/relationship-between-ethno-religious-conflict-and-economic-growth-analysis-of-the-scholarly-literature/}
ISSN = {2373-6615 (Paʻi); 2373-6631 (Online)}
Makahiki = {2022}
Lā = {2022-12-18}
Nūpepa = {Journal of Living Together}
Volume = {7}
Helu = {1}
Nā ʻaoʻao = {38-57}
Mea hoʻopuka = {International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation}
Helu helu = {White Plains, New York}
Puka = {2022}.
Introduction
ʻO ke koʻikoʻi o ke aʻo ʻana i ka pilina ma waena o ka hakakā ethno-religious a me ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai. He mea koʻikoʻi ka loaʻa ʻana o kēia ʻike i ka hana ʻana me nā heluna kanaka e hoʻopilikia ai i ka hoʻokumu ʻana i ka maluhia. Uaʻikeʻia ka hakakā ma keʻano he "mea hoʻoikaika i ka hoʻokele waiwai honua" (Ghadar, 2006, p. 15). ʻO nā hakakā lāhui a i ʻole ka hoʻomana i manaʻo ʻia ʻo ia nā ʻano koʻikoʻi o nā hakakā kūloko o nā ʻāina e ulu nei akā paʻakikī loa ke aʻo ʻia ʻana ma ke ʻano he hoʻomana a i ʻole ka hakakā lāhui (Kim, 2009). He mea nui ka hopena i ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai e loiloi i ka hele ʻana i mua me ka maluhia. ʻO ka hopena o ka paio i ke kapikala kino a me ka hana ʻana, a me ke kumukūʻai hoʻokele waiwai o ka hakakā maoli, hiki ke lilo i ka manaʻo mua e ukali ʻia e nā hoʻololi ʻana o ka nohona waiwai i hoʻokumu ʻia e ka hakakā e hiki ke hoʻopilikia i ka hopena hoʻokele waiwai o ka hakakā i ka hoʻomohala ʻana o ka ʻāina ( Schein, 2017). ʻO ka loiloi o kēia mau mea he mea koʻikoʻi loa ia i ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka hopena i ka hoʻokele waiwai ma mua o ka lanakila ʻana a i ʻole nalo ka ʻāina i ka hakakā (Schein, 2017). ʻAʻole pololei i nā manawa a pau ka lanakila ʻana i kahi hakakā hiki ke hopena i nā loli maikaʻi i ka ʻoihana hoʻokele waiwai, a me ka nalo ʻana o kahi paio e hopena i nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole i ke kaiapuni waiwai (Schein, 2017). Hiki ke lanakila ka paio, akā inā hoʻopilikia ka hakakā i nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole i ke kaiapuni waiwai, e pōʻino paha ka hoʻokele waiwai (Schein, 2017). ʻO ka nalo ʻana o kahi hakakā hiki ke alakaʻi i ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana i ka ʻoihana waiwai, a no laila ke kōkua ʻia ka hoʻomohala ʻana o ka ʻāina e ka hakakā (Schein, 2017).
Nui nā hui i ʻike iā lākou iho he mau lālā o ka moʻomeheu maʻamau, inā he hoʻomana a he lāhui paha, hiki ke komo i ka hakakā e hoʻomau i kēlā aupuni ponoʻī (Stewart, 2002). Hōʻike ʻia ka hopena hoʻokele waiwai i ka ʻōlelo e pili ana ka hakakā a me ke kaua i ka hoʻoili ʻana o ka lehulehu (Warsame & Wilhelmsson, 2019). ʻO kahi pilikia nui o ka puʻuhonua ma nā ʻāina me nā ʻoihana haʻihaʻi e like me Tunisia, Jordan, Lebanona, a me Djibouti i hoʻokumu ʻia e ke kaua kīwila ma Iraq, Libya, Yemen, a me Suria (Karam & Zaki, 2016).
Ke Koʻikoʻo
I mea e ʻike ai i ka hopena o ka hakakā ʻano hoʻomana i ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai, ua hoʻomaka ʻia kahi loiloi o nā palapala naʻauao e pili ana i kēia huaʻōlelo. Ua ʻike ʻia nā ʻatikala e pili ana i nā ʻano like ʻole e like me ka hoʻoweliweli, ke kaua i ka weliweli, a me ka hakakā ma nā ʻāina kikoʻī e pili ana i ka hakakā lāhui a me ka hoʻomana, a ʻo kēlā mau moʻolelo puke moʻolelo i nānā ʻia e ka poʻe loea e pili ana i ka pilina o ka hakakā lāhui a me ka hoʻomana me ka ulu waiwai. komo i loko o ka noiʻi palapala kālailai.
ʻO ke aʻo ʻana i nā hopena hoʻokele waiwai o nā kumu ethno-religious hiki ke lilo i hana koʻikoʻi no ka nui o nā palapala e hoʻoponopono ana i nā pilikia ma kēia wahi. He paʻakikī ka nānā ʻana i ka nui o ka noiʻi ʻana i kahi kumuhana no ka poʻe noiʻi e aʻo ana i ka palapala (Bellefontaine & Lee, 2014; Glass, 1977; Light & Smith, 1971). No laila, ua hoʻolālā ʻia kēia loiloi e hoʻoponopono i ka nīnau noiʻi e pili ana i ka pilina o ka hakakā lāhui a/a i ʻole hoʻomana me ka ulu waiwai ma o nā ʻano hoʻololi i ʻike ʻia. Loaʻa nā noiʻi i loiloi ʻia nā ʻano hana like ʻole, e like me ka qualitative, quantitative, a me nā ʻano hui like ʻole (qualitative a quantitative).
Hoʻohana i nā ʻikepili noiʻi pūnaewele
Ua hoʻohana ʻia nā ʻikepili noiʻi pūnaewele i loaʻa i loko o ka waihona hoʻonaʻauao o ka mea kākau i ka ʻimi ʻana e ʻimi i nā ʻatikala pili i ka naʻauao, loiloi ʻia e nā hoa. I ka hana ʻana i ka ʻimi puke, ua hoʻohana ʻia ka palena o ka "Scholarly (Peer-Reviewed) Journals". Ma muli o nā ʻano multidisciplinary a interdisciplinary o ka hakakā ʻano hoʻomana a me ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai, ua ʻimi ʻia nā ʻikepili pūnaewele he nui a me nā ʻano like ʻole. ʻO nā ʻikepili pūnaewele i ʻimi ʻia, ʻaʻole i kaupalena ʻia i kēia mau mea:
- Academic Search Ultimate
- ʻAmelika: Moʻolelo a me ke ola me ka kikokikona piha
- ʻOhi ʻAhahui Hōʻikeʻike Kūlohelohe o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa (AAS): Māhele 1
- ʻOhi ʻAhahui Hōʻikeʻike Kūlohelohe o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa (AAS): Māhele 2
- ʻOhi ʻAhahui Hōʻikeʻike Kūlohelohe o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa (AAS): Māhele 3
- ʻOhi ʻAhahui Hōʻikeʻike Kūlohelohe o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa (AAS): Māhele 4
- ʻOhi ʻAhahui Hōʻikeʻike Kūlohelohe o ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa (AAS): Māhele 5
- Nā kiʻi kiʻi kiʻi (HW Wilson)
- Atla Religion Database me AtlaSerials
- ʻO ka Bank Reference Biography (HW Wilson)
- Hale Kuhikuhi Biography
- Nā mea ʻokoʻa olaola
- ʻOhi Hōʻike Biomedical: Basic
- Paʻa Puna ʻoihana
- CINAHL me ke kikokikona piha
- ʻO Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials
- ʻO nā pane lapaʻau ʻo Cochrane
- Cochrane Palapala Pūnaewele o nā Pūnaewele Pūnaewele
- Cochrane Methodology Register
- Kūkākūkā a me nā Media Nui
- EBSCO Management Collection
- Kumu Haʻawina ʻOihana
- Eric
- Essay and General Literature Index (HW Wilson)
- Kiʻiʻoniʻoni & Television Literature Index me ka kikokikona piha
- Fonte Academica
- Fuente Académica Kuhina Nui
- ʻIkepili ʻIke kāne
- GreenFILE
- ʻOihana Ola FullTEXT
- Punawai Ola – Consumer Edition
- Punawai Ola: Nursing/Academic Edition
- Hale Hōʻikeʻike Moʻolelo
- ʻŌlelo piha kanaka (HW Wilson)
- Nā puke moʻolelo honua o ka hale keaka & hula me ka kikokikona piha
- Waihona Puke, ʻIke ʻEpekema & ʻenehana Abstracts
- Hale Kuhikuhi Moolelo Plus
- MagillOnLiterature Plus
- MAS Ultra – Hoʻopuka Kula
- MasterFILE Kuhina Nui
- MEDLINE me ka kikokikona piha
- Huli Waena Plus
- Koa & Aupuni Ohi
- MLA Papa kuhikuhi o na Manawa
- MLA International Bibliography
- Ka Papa Kuhikuhi
- Huli Kumu
- ʻOhi hoʻomohala ʻoihana
- MAKEMAKE
- PsychINFO
- Ke alakaʻi a ka poʻe heluhelu i ke koho kikokikona piha (HW Wilson)
- Referencia Latina
- Nūhou Pāʻoihana ʻĀpana
- Hale Kuhikuhi Pāʻoihana Liʻiliʻi
- ʻEpekema Pilikino piha kikokikona (HW Wilson)
- Nā Kuleana Hana Pilikino
- SocINDEX me ka kikokikona piha
- TOPICsearch
- ʻO Vente a me Gestion
Wehewehe o nā ʻano like ʻole
ʻO ka hopena hoʻokele waiwai o ka hakakā ʻano hoʻomana e koi ana i nā wehewehe o nā ʻano like ʻole i ʻōlelo ʻia ma kēia loiloi palapala noiʻi. E like me ka ʻōlelo a Ghadar (2006), "Ke hoʻololi nei ka wehewehe ʻana o ka hakakā ponoʻī e like me ka hoʻomau ʻana o nā hakakā maʻamau o ka honua i ka emi ʻana aʻo ka piʻi ʻana o ke kaua kīwila a me ka hoʻoweliweli" (p. 15). Ua wehewehe ʻia nā huaʻōlelo hulina e nā mea hoʻololi, a no laila he mea nui ka wehewehe ʻana i nā huaʻōlelo hulina i ka loiloi palapala. I ka nānā ʻana i nā palapala, ʻaʻole hiki ke ʻike ʻia kahi wehewehe maʻamau o "ka hakakā etno-religious" a me ka "ulu hoʻokele waiwai". no kēlā me kēia me kēlā huaʻōlelo pololei, akā ua hoʻohana ʻia nā huaʻōlelo like ʻole e hōʻike i ke ʻano like a like paha. ʻO nā huaʻōlelo hulina i hoʻohana mua ʻia i ka ʻimi ʻana i nā palapala, ʻo ia ka "ethnic", "ethno", "religious", "religion", "economic", "economy", a me "conflict". Ua hui pū ʻia kēia mau huaʻōlelo ma nā ʻano hoʻololi like ʻole me nā huaʻōlelo hulina ʻē aʻe e like me nā huaʻōlelo ʻimi Boolean ma nā waihona.
Wahi a ka Oxford English Dictionary Online, ua wehewehe ʻia ka "ethno-" e like me kēia me ka "obsolete", "archaic", a me "rare" classifications i wehe ʻia no ke kumu o kēia noiʻi: , i kau mua ʻia i (a) hui pū ʻana i nā ʻano (e like me ka ethnography n., ethnology n., etc.), a me (b) nouns (e like me ethnobotany n., ethnopsychology n., etc.), a i ʻole nā huaʻōlelo o kēia mau mea” (Oxford English Dictionary , 2019e). Ua wehewehe ʻia ka "Ethnic" i loko o kēia mau wehewehe, e hoʻopau hou i nā hoʻokaʻawale ʻana ʻaʻole i hoʻohana nui ʻia, "ma ke ʻano he inoa: kumu a me ke aliʻi. Moolelo Helene Kahiko. He huaʻōlelo e hōʻike ana i ka lāhui a i ʻole kahi i hānau ʻia ai”; a "mamua US He lālā o kahi hui a i ʻole pūʻulu liʻiliʻi i manaʻo ʻia he ʻano ʻano like ʻole, a i ʻole he kuʻuna kuʻuna ʻāina a moʻomeheu like paha; esp. he lālā o ka lāhui liʻiliʻi." Ma ke ʻano he adjective, ua wehewehe ʻia ʻo "ethnic" ma ke ʻano he "mua Moolelo Helene Kahiko. ʻO kahi huaʻōlelo: e hōʻike ana i ka lāhui a i ʻole kahi i hānau ʻia ai”; a “Ma ke kumu: no a pili paha i nā lāhui e pili ana i ko lākou ʻohana maʻamau. I kēia manawa maʻamau: no ka pili ʻana i ka lāhui a i ʻole moʻomeheu a i ʻole kuʻuna”; “Ke koho ʻana a pili paha i nā pilina ma waena o nā hui kanaka like ʻole o ka ʻāina a i ʻole ka ʻāina, esp. kahi inaina a paio paha; e kū nei a i ʻole ma waena o ia mau pūʻulu, ma waena o ka lāhui"; “No ka pūʻulu heluna kanaka: manaʻo ʻia he ʻano lāhui like ʻole, a i ʻole he kuʻuna kuʻuna ʻāina a moʻomeheu like paha”; “Ka koho ʻana a i ʻole pili ʻana i ka hana noʻeau, mele, ʻaʻahu, a i ʻole nā mea ʻē aʻe o ka moʻomeheu i ʻike ʻia o kahi hui aupuni a moʻomeheu kūikawā paha (esp. non-Western); hoʻohālike a hoʻokomo ʻia paha i nā mea o kēia mau mea. No laila :(kamaʻilio ʻōlelo) haole, ʻokoʻa”; Ka koho ʻana a pili ʻana paha i kahi pūʻulu heluna kanaka (i loko o kahi hui aupuni a moʻomeheu koʻikoʻi) i manaʻo ʻia he ʻano kuʻuna like ʻole a kuʻuna ʻāina a moʻomeheu paha. Ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa i kekahi manawa spec. ke koho ʻana i nā lālā o nā hui liʻiliʻi ʻole ʻeleʻele. I kēia manawa noʻonoʻo pinepine ʻia hōʻeha”; “Ko e fokotuʻu ʻa e tupuʻanga pe ʻiloa ʻo e fonua ʻi he fanauʻi pe ʻi heʻeiki ʻi he fonua ʻi he ʻaho ní” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019d).
ʻO ka noiʻi e pili ana i ke ʻano o ka hoʻololi ʻana, "hoʻomana", pili i ka hakakā ʻino ʻia no nā kumu ʻehā (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). ʻO ka hihia mua, aia nā pilikia i ke koho ʻana ma waena o nā manaʻo e hoʻāʻo e wehewehe i nā hakakā ʻino (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Ma ka pukana ʻelua, loaʻa nā pilikia mai nā palena wehewehe e pili ana i ka hana ʻino a me ka hakakā (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). A hiki i ka 1990s, ʻo ke kaua a me ka hakakā ʻino o ka honua ma ke kumuhana o ka pilina o ka honua a me ka palekana a me nā haʻawina hoʻolālā ʻoiai ua piʻi nui nā hakakā kūloko kūloko ma hope o ka 1960s (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). ʻO ke kolu o ka pilikia e pili ana i ka hoʻololi ʻana i nā hale e pili ana i ka hopohopo honua o ka hana ʻino i ka honua a me ka neʻe ʻana o ke ʻano o nā hakakā kaua i kēia manawa (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). ʻO ka hopena hope loa e pili ana i ka pono e hoʻokaʻawale i waena o nā ʻano kumu no ka mea he nui nā ʻāpana like ʻole a pili i ka hakakā, ke loli nei, a he huahana ia o nā kumu he nui (Cederman & Gleditsch, 2009; Dixon, 2009; Duyvesteyn, 2000; Feliu & Grasa, 2013; Themnér & Wallensteen, 2012).
Ua wehewehe ʻia ka huaʻōlelo "hoʻomana" ma ke ʻano he adjective i loko o kēia mau huaʻōlelo me ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana ʻaʻole i hoʻohana nui ʻia: "No ke kanaka a i ʻole ka hui o nā kānaka: i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e nā hoʻohiki hoʻomana; no ke kauoha monastic, esp. i ka Ekalesia Katolika Roma”; “No kekahi mea, kahi, etc. monastic”; “ʻO ke poʻo o ke kanaka: kūpaʻa i ka hoʻomana; e hōʻike ana i ka hopena o ka hoʻomana a i ʻole ka hopena o ka hoʻomana, ma muli o nā koi o kahi hoʻomana; haipule, haipule, haipule”; "No, pili i, a pili paha i ka hoʻomana" a me "Scrupulous, exact, strict, conscientious. I ka wehewehe ʻana i ka "hoʻomana" ma ke ʻano he noun, ua hoʻopili ʻia nā ʻano hoʻohana maʻamau: "Ka poʻe i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e nā hoʻohiki monastic a i hoʻolaʻa ʻia i kahi ola hoʻomana, esp. i loko o ka hale pule Katolika Roma" a "He kanaka i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e nā hoʻohiki hoʻomana a i hoʻolaʻa ʻia i kahi ola hoʻomana, esp. i ka Ekalesia Katolika Roma” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019g).
Ua wehewehe ʻia ʻo "Religion", me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka hoʻohana maʻamau i hoʻopili ʻia, ʻo ia ʻo "He kūlana o ke ola i hoʻopaʻa ʻia e nā hoʻohiki hoʻomana; ke kūlana o ke komo ʻana i kahi kauoha hoʻomana; “Ka hana a i ʻole ka hana e hōʻike ana i ka manaʻoʻiʻo, ka hoʻolohe, a me ka mahalo i ke akua, nā akua, a i ʻole ka mana like ʻole o ke kanaka; ka hana ʻana i nā hana hoʻomana a i ʻole nā hoʻomana" ke hui pū ʻia me "Ka manaʻoʻiʻo a i ʻole ka hōʻoia ʻana i kekahi mana a i ʻole nā mana kiʻekiʻe (e like me ke akua a i ʻole nā akua) i hōʻike ʻia ma ka hoʻolohe, ka mahalo, a me ka hoʻomana; ʻo ia manaʻoʻiʻo ma ke ʻano he ʻāpana o kahi ʻōnaehana e wehewehe ana i kahi code of living, esp. ma ke ʻano he mea e hoʻokō ai i ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana i ka ʻuhane a i ʻole ke kino"; a “Ko ha faʻahinga ʻo e tui mo e lotu” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019f). Ua hoʻohana ʻia ka wehewehe hope ma kēia ʻimi puke.
Ua hoʻohana ʻia nā huaʻōlelo ʻimi, "economy" a me "economic" i ka ʻimi ʻana i nā waihona. ʻO ka huaʻōlelo, "economy", mālama i ʻumikūmākahi (11) wehewehe i ka Oxford English Dictionary (2019c). ʻO ka wehewehe kūpono no ka noi ʻana i kēia loiloi penei: “Ka hui a i ʻole ke kūlana o kahi kaiāulu a lāhui paha e pili ana i nā kumu waiwai, esp. ka hana ʻana a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā waiwai a me nā lawelawe a me ka hoʻolako kālā (i kēia manawa pinepine me ka); (foi) hoʻokahi ʻōnaehana waiwai” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019). E pili ana i ka huaʻōlelo, "economic", ua hoʻohana ʻia kēia wehewehe ʻana i ka ʻimi ʻana i nā ʻatikala kūpono: "ʻO, pili i, a pili paha i ka ʻepekema o ka ʻoihana waiwai a i ʻole ka ʻoihana ma ka laulā" a "e pili ana i ka hoʻomohala ʻana a me ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai waiwai o kahi kaiāulu a mokuʻāina paha" (English Oxford Dictionary, 2019b).
ʻO nā huaʻōlelo, "hoʻololi hoʻokele waiwai", e pili ana i nā loli liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi i loko o kahi hoʻokele waiwai, a me "hoʻololi hoʻokele waiwai", e hōʻike ana i kahi loli nui o kēlā me kēia ʻano i kahi ʻoihana ʻokoʻa loa, ua manaʻo ʻia ʻo ia nā huaʻōlelo ʻimi i ka noiʻi (Cottey, 2018, p. 215). Ma ka hoʻohana ʻana i kēia mau ʻōlelo, ua hoʻokomo ʻia nā haʻawina i ʻike ʻole ʻia i ka ʻoihana (Cottey, 2018).
Ua noʻonoʻo ʻia i loko o kēia noiʻi ʻana ma o ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā huaʻōlelo ʻimi i nā koina hoʻokele waiwai pololei a me ka ʻole o ka hakakā. ʻO nā kumukūʻai pololei he mau kumukūʻai hiki ke hoʻopili koke ʻia i ka hakakā a hoʻokomo i ka pōʻino i ke kanaka, ka mālama ʻana a me ka hoʻoneʻe ʻia ʻana o ka poʻe i haʻalele ʻia, ka luku ʻana a me ka hōʻino ʻana i nā kumuwaiwai kino, a me nā kumukūʻai kiʻekiʻe o ka pūʻali koa a me ka palekana kūloko (Mutlu, 2011). ʻO nā kumukūʻai kūʻokoʻa e pili ana i nā hopena o ka paio e like me ka nalowale o ke kālā kanaka ma muli o ka make a i ʻole ka hōʻeha, ka nalowale o ka loaʻa kālā ma muli o ka haʻalele ʻana i ka hoʻopukapuka kālā, ka lele ʻana i ke kapikala, ka neʻe ʻana o nā limahana akamai, a me ka nalowale o ka loaʻa kālā o nā haole a me nā loaʻa huakaʻi (Mutlu, 2011). ). Hiki i nā poʻe i komo i ka hakakā ke loaʻa i nā pohō ma muli o ke koʻikoʻi noʻonoʻo a me ka trauma a me ka hoʻopau ʻana i ka hoʻonaʻauao (Mutlu, 2011). Ua ʻike ʻia kēia ma ka haʻawina ʻo Hamber and Gallagher (2014) i ʻike i nā kāne ʻōpio ma Northern Ireland i hele mai i mua me nā pilikia olakino a me ka noʻonoʻo, a ʻo ka helu e hōʻike ana i ka hōʻeha iā ʻoe iho, e ʻike ana i nā manaʻo suicidal, e komo ana i ka hana a i ʻole ka hoʻāʻo pepehi kanaka. ʻo ia hoʻi ka "weliweli" (p. 52). Wahi a ka poʻe i komo, ʻo kēia mau ʻano i hōʻike ʻia ma muli o "ke kaumaha, ke kaumaha, ka hopohopo, ka hoʻohui ʻana, ka ʻike ʻole ʻia, ka haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa, ka nele i nā manaʻo ola, ka manaʻo ʻole ʻia, ka manaʻo ʻole, ka manaʻo ʻole a me ka hoʻoweliweli a me ka makaʻu i nā hoʻouka kaua" (Hamber & Gallagher. , 2014, p. 52).
Ua wehewehe ʻia ʻo "Conflict" e like me "he halawai me na lima; he kaua, he kaua”; "he paio lōʻihi"; hakaka, hakaka me ka lima, hakaka kaua”; "he paio noʻonoʻo a uhane paha i loko o ke kanaka"; "ka paio a i ʻole ka ʻokoʻa o nā kumu kū'ē, nā ʻōlelo, nā hoʻopaʻapaʻa, a pēlā aku."; "ʻo ke kū'ē, i loko o ke kanaka, i nā makemake like ʻole a i ʻole nā pono e like me ka ikaika like; ʻo ia hoʻi, ke kūlana manaʻo ʻehaʻeha ma muli o ia kūʻē ʻana”; a “ʻauʻau ʻakau, tuʻi, pe ko e hilifaki fakamālohi ʻo e sino fakaesino” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019a). Ua hoʻohana ʻia ʻo "War" a me "terrorism" ma ke ʻano he huaʻōlelo hulina me nā huaʻōlelo hulina i ʻōlelo ʻia ma luna.
ʻAʻole i hoʻohana ʻia nā palapala hina i ka loiloi puke. Ua nānā ʻia nā ʻatikala piha a me nā ʻatikala ʻaʻole i piha i ka kikokikona, akā e hālāwai me nā wehewehe o nā ʻano pili. Ua hoʻohana ʻia ka hōʻaiʻē Interlibrary no ke kauoha ʻana i nā ʻatikala puke moʻolelo i nānā ʻia e nā hoa ʻaʻole i piha i ka kikokikona ma nā ʻikepili pūnaewele naʻauao.
ʻO Nigeria a me Cameroon
ʻO ka pilikia ma ʻApelika, e like me Mamdani, he mau hiʻohiʻona o ka pilikia o ke aupuni post-colonial (2001). Ua hoʻokaʻawale ʻo Colonialism i ka hui ʻana ma waena o nā ʻApelika a ua hoʻololi iā ia me nā palena lāhui a me nā ʻāina (Olasupo, Ijeoma, & Oladeji, 2017). ʻO ka lāhui e hoʻomalu nei i ka moku'āina e noho aliʻi nui loa, a no laila, ua hāʻule ka moku'āina ma hope o ke kūʻokoʻa ma muli o nā hakakā ma waena o nā lāhui a me nā lāhui (Olasupo et al., 2017).
He ʻano koʻikoʻi ka hoʻomana i nā hakakā he nui ma Nigeria mai kona kūʻokoʻa i 1960 (Onapajo, 2017). Ma mua o ka hakakā Boko Haram, ua ʻike nā haʻawina ʻo Nigeria kekahi o nā ʻāina ʻApelika me ka nui o nā hakakā hoʻomana (Onapajo, 2017). Nui nā ʻoihana i pani ʻia ma Nigeria ma muli o ka haunaele hoʻomana a ʻo ka hapa nui i hao ʻia a luku ʻia paha me kā lākou mea nona ka mea i pepehi ʻia a haʻalele paha (Anwuluorah, 2016). Ma muli o ka neʻe ʻana o ka hapa nui o nā ʻoihana honua a me nā ʻoihana lehulehu i nā wahi ʻē aʻe kahi pilikia ʻole, ua lilo nā limahana i mea hana ʻole a ua hoʻopilikia ʻia nā ʻohana (Anwuluorah, 2016). Kūkākūkā ʻo Foyou, Ngwafu, Santoyo, a me Ortiz (2018) i ka hopena waiwai o ka hoʻoweliweli ma Nigeria a me Cameroon. Ua wehewehe nā mea kākau i ke ʻano o ka hoʻouka ʻana o Boko Haram ma nā palena a hiki i Northern Cameroon "ua hāʻawi i ka hoʻopau ʻana i ke kumu waiwai palupalu i mālama ʻia i nā ʻāpana ʻākau ʻekolu o Cameroon [ka ʻĀkau, ka Far North, a me Adamawa] a hoʻoweliweli i ka palekana o ka poʻe kōkua ʻole ma kēia māhele" (Foyou et al, 2018, p. 73). Ma hope o ke kipi ʻana o Boko Horam i Northern Cameroon a me nā ʻāpana o Chad a me Niger, ua kōkua hope ʻo Cameroon iā Nigeria (Foyou et al., 2018). ʻO ka hana hoʻoweliweli ʻo Boko Haram ma Nigeria, ka mea i alakaʻi i ka make ʻana o nā tausani o ka poʻe me nā Mahometa a me nā Karistiano, a me ka luku ʻana i nā waiwai, nā ʻoihana a me nā papahana hoʻomohala, hoʻoweliweli i ka "palekana aupuni, ke kumu i ka pōʻino kanaka, trauma psychological, hoʻopau i nā hana kula, nele i ka hana. , a me ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka ʻilihune, e hopena i ka hoʻokele waiwai nāwaliwali” (Ugorji, 2017, p. 165).
ʻO Iran, Iraq, Turkey, a me Suria
Ua mau ke kaua Iran-Iraq mai 1980 a i 1988 me ka huina waiwai o na aina elua he $1.097 trillion, heluhelu ia he 1 trillion a me 97 biliona dala (Mofrid, 1990). Ma ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana iā Iran, "Ua ʻimi ʻo Saddam Hussein e hoʻoponopono i nā helu me kona hoalauna no ka ʻike ʻole ʻia o ka Algiers Agreement, āna i kūkākūkā ai me ka Shah o Iran i ka makahiki 1975, a no ke kākoʻo ʻana o Ayatollah Khomeini i nā hui kūʻē Islam e kūʻē i ke aupuni Iraqi " (Parasiliti, 2003, p. 152).
Ua hoʻoikaikaʻia ka Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) e ka hakakā a me ka paʻaʻole a lilo i mea kūʻokoʻa (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Ua hopu ʻo ISIS i ka mana o nā wahi ma waho o Suria, holomua ma Iraq a me Lebanona, a ma ka hakakā ikaika, pepehi kanaka kīwila (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Aia nā moʻolelo o "ka hoʻopaʻi nui ʻana a me ka hoʻopaʻi ʻana i nā Shiʻis, nā Karistiano, a me nā lāhui ʻē aʻe a me ka hoʻomana liʻiliʻi" e ISIS (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015. p. 1). Ua ʻike hou ʻia he papahana ka ISIS ma mua o kahi papahana hoʻokaʻawale, a he ʻokoʻa kēia ma mua o nā hui hoʻoweliweli ʻē aʻe ma Iran (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Nui nā ʻano ʻokoʻa i hoʻohui ʻia i nā ana palekana e pili ana i ka ulu ʻana o ke kūlanakauhale o ke kūlanakauhale, a ʻo ia hoʻi ke ʻano o nā ana palekana, ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai a me ka heluna kanaka, a me ka hiki ke hoʻoweliweli (Falah, 2017).
Ma hope o Iran, ʻo Iraq ka nui loa o ka poʻe Shiʻi honua e pili ana i kahi kokoke i 60-75% o ka Iraqis, a he mea nui ia i ka hoʻolālā hoʻomana o Iran (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). ʻO ka nui o ke kālepa ma waena o Iraq a me Iran he $ 13 biliona (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). ʻO ka ulu ʻana o ke kālepa ma waena o Iran a me Iraq i hele mai ma o ka hoʻoikaika ʻana i nā pilina ma waena o nā alakaʻi o nā ʻāina ʻelua, nā Kurds, a me nā ʻohana Shiʻi liʻiliʻi (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015).
Noho ka hapa nui o Kurds ma ka ʻāina i loko o Iraq, Iran, Turkey, a me Suria i kapa ʻia ʻo Kurdistan (Brathwaite, 2014). ʻO nā mana imperial Ottoman, Pelekania, Soviet, a me Farani i hoʻomalu i kēia wahi a hiki i ka hopena o WWII (Brathwaite, 2014). Ua hoʻāʻo ʻo Iraq, Iran, Turkey, a me Suria e kāohi i ka poʻe Kurdish liʻiliʻi ma o nā kulekele like ʻole i hopena i nā pane like ʻole mai nā Kurds (Brathwaite, 2014). ʻAʻole kipi ka poʻe Kurdish o Suria mai 1961 a hiki i ka piʻi ʻana o ka PKK ma 1984 a ʻaʻohe hakakā mai Iraq a hiki i Suria (Brathwaite, 2014). Ua hui pū ʻo Syrian Kurds i ko lākou lāhui i ko lākou hakakā me Iraq a me Turkey ma mua o ka hoʻomaka ʻana i ka hakakā me Suria (Brathwaite, 2014).
Ua loaʻa i ka ʻāina o Iraqi Kurdistan (KRI) ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka hoʻokele waiwai i nā makahiki i hala, me ka ulu ʻana o ka poʻe i hoʻi mai mai 2013, he makahiki i ʻike i ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai ma Iraqi Kurdistan (Savasta, 2019). ʻO ka hopena o ka neʻe ʻana ma Kurdistan mai ka waena o 1980s ka neʻe ʻana i ka wā o ka hoʻouka kaua ʻo Anfal i 1988, hoʻi i ka neʻe ʻana ma waena o 1991 a me 2003, a me ke kūlanakauhale ma hope o ka hāʻule ʻana o ke aupuni Iraqi i 2003 (Eklund, Persson, & Pilesjö, 2016). ʻOi aku ka nui o nā mea kanu hoʻoilo i hoʻokaʻawale ʻia i ka wā o ka hana hou ʻana i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me ka wā post-Anfal e hōʻike ana ua haʻalele ʻia kekahi ʻāina ma hope o ka hoʻihoʻi ʻia ʻana o ka huakaʻi Anfal i ka wā hana hou (Eklund et al., 2016). ʻAʻole hiki ke hoʻonui i ka mahiʻai ma hope o ka hoʻopaʻi ʻana i ke kālepa i kēia manawa e wehewehe ai i ka hoʻonui ʻia o ka ʻāina hoʻoilo (Eklund et al., 2016). Ua lilo kekahi mau wahi i kanu ʻole ʻia i ka hoʻoilo a ua hoʻonui ʻia ka ʻāina hoʻoilo i hoʻopaʻa ʻia he ʻumi mau makahiki ma hope o ka pau ʻana o ke kūkulu hou ʻana a hāʻule ke aupuni Iraqi (Eklund et al., 2016). Me ka hakakā ma waena o ka Islamic State (IS) a me nā aupuni Kurdish a me Iraqi, nā haunaele i ka makahiki 2014 e hōʻike ana e hoʻomau ʻia kēia wahi e nā hakakā (Eklund et al., 2016).
ʻO ka hakakā Kurdish ma Turkey he moʻolelo koʻikoʻi i ka Ottoman Empire (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2017). Pono e hoʻokomo i nā alakaʻi lāhui a me nā hoʻomana i ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i kēia hakakā Kurdish (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2017). ʻO nā manaʻo Kurds e pili ana i ka hakakā ma Turkey a me ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i ka poʻe Turkish e hui pū me nā lāhui ʻē aʻe ma Turkey he mea nui e hoʻomaopopo i ka hakakā ma kēia kaiāulu (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2016). Hōʻike ʻia ka kipi Kurdish i nā koho hoʻokūkū o Turkey ma 1950 (Tezcur, 2015). Loaʻa ka piʻi ʻana o ka neʻe ʻana o Kurdish ikaika a me ka nonviolent ma Turkey i ka manawa ma hope o 1980 i ka wā i hoʻomaka ai ka PKK (Partiya Karkereˆn Kurdistan), kahi hui Kurdish kipi, i ke kaua guerilla ma 1984 (Tezcur, 2015). Ua hoʻomau ka hakakā i ka make ma hope o ʻekolu mau makahiki ma hope o ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ke kipi (Tezcur, 2015).
Ua ʻike ʻia ka hakakā Kurdish ma Turkey ma ke ʻano he "hihia ʻelele no nā kaua kīwila ethno-nationalist" ma ka wehewehe ʻana i ka pilina ma waena o nā kaua kīwila ethno-nationalist a me ka luku ʻana i ke kaiapuni no ka mea e hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā kaua kīwila a ʻae i ke aupuni e hoʻokō i kāna hoʻolālā e luku i ka insurgency (Gurses, 2012, p.268). ʻO ke kumukūʻai hoʻokele waiwai i manaʻo ʻia e Turkey i ka hakakā me ka Kurdish separatists mai 1984 a hiki i ka hopena o 2005 ka huina o $ 88.1 biliona ma ke kumukūʻai pololei a me ka ʻole (Mutlu, 2011). Hoʻopili koke ʻia nā kumukūʻai pololei i ka hakakā ʻoiai ʻo nā kumukūʻai kūʻokoʻa nā hopena e like me ka nalowale o ke kālā kanaka ma muli o ka make a i ʻole ka hōʻeha ʻana o nā kānaka, neʻe, lele kālā a me nā hoʻopukapuka haʻalele (Mutlu, 2011).
Iseraela
ʻO ka ʻIseraʻela i kēia lā he ʻāina i māhele ʻia e ka hoʻomana a me ka hoʻonaʻauao (Cochran, 2017). Aia kahi kokoke i ka hakakā mau ma waena o nā Iudaio a me nā ʻArabia i ka ʻIseraʻela e hoʻomaka ana i ka makahiki iwakālua a hoʻomau i ka hoʻomaka ʻana o ke kenekulia iwakāluakūmākahi (Schein, 2017). Ua lanakila ka poʻe Pelekania i ka ʻāina mai ka Ottomans i ke Kaua Honua Mua a ua lilo ka ʻāina i kikowaena lako nui no nā pūʻali koa Pelekania ma WWII (Schein, 2017). Hoʻoikaika ʻia ma lalo o ke kauoha Pelekane a me ke aupuni ʻIseraʻela, ua hāʻawi ʻo ʻIseraʻela i nā kumuwaiwai ʻokoʻa akā ʻaʻole like a me ke komo ʻana i ke aupuni a me ka hoʻonaʻauao hoʻomana mai 1920 a hiki i kēia manawa (Cochran, 2017).
Ua ʻike ʻia kahi haʻawina a Schein (2017) ʻaʻohe hopena hopena o nā kaua i ka hoʻokele waiwai o ka ʻIseraʻela. ʻO WWI, WWII, a me ke Kaua ʻEono lā he mea maikaʻi ia i ka hoʻokele waiwai o ka ʻIseraʻela, akā ʻo ka "'Arab kipi' o 1936–1939, ke kaua kīwila ma 1947–1948, ke kaua Arab-Israeli mua no nā kamaʻāina Arab o Mandatory. Palesetina, a ua loaʻa i nā intifadas ʻelua nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole i ka hoʻokele waiwai "(Schein, 2017, p. 662). ʻO nā hopena hoʻokele waiwai o ke kaua ma 1956 a me ka kaua mua a me ka lua o Lebanona he "palena a maikaʻi ʻole paha" (Schein, 2017, p. 662). Ma muli o nā ʻokoʻa lōʻihi o ka ʻoihana waiwai mai ke Kaua Arab-Israeli mua no ka poʻe Iudaio e noho ana ma Mandatory Palestine a me ka Yom Kippur War a me nā ʻokoʻa pōkole o ka ʻoihana hoʻokele waiwai mai ka War of Attrition ʻaʻole hiki ke hoʻoholo ʻia, ʻaʻole hiki ke hoʻoholo ʻia nā hopena waiwai. ʻaʻole hiki ke hoʻoholo ʻia (Schein, 2017).
Kūkākūkā ʻo Schein (2017) i ʻelua manaʻo i ka helu ʻana i nā hopena hoʻokele waiwai o ke kaua: (1) ʻo ka mea koʻikoʻi loa i kēia helu ʻana ʻo ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka ʻoihana hoʻokele waiwai mai ke kaua a (2) ʻo nā kaua kūloko a i ʻole nā kaua kīwila e hopena i ka pōʻino o ka hoʻokele waiwai. ka ulu ʻana i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me nā poho o ke kālā kino mai nā kaua mai ka wā i pau ai ka hoʻokele waiwai i ka wā o nā kaua kūloko a i ʻole kīwila. ʻO WWI kahi hiʻohiʻona o ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka nohona waiwai mai ke kaua (Schein, 2017). ʻOiai ua luku ʻo WWI i ke kapikala mahiʻai ma ka ʻIseraʻela, ʻo ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka ʻoihana hoʻokele waiwai ma muli o WWI i hoʻonui i ka hoʻokele waiwai ma hope o ke kaua, a no laila ua loaʻa ka WWI i ka hopena maikaʻi i ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai ma ʻIseraʻela (Schein, 2017). ʻO ka manaʻo ʻelua, ʻo nā kaua kūloko a i ʻole kīwila, i hōʻike ʻia e nā intifadas ʻelua a me ka 'Arab Revolt', kahi i loaʻa ai nā poho mai ka hoʻokele waiwai ʻole no ka manawa lōʻihi, ua ʻoi aku ka pōʻino i ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai ma mua o nā poho o ke kālā kino mai nā kaua ( Schein, 2017).
Hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia nā manaʻo e pili ana i ka hopena hoʻokele waiwai lōʻihi a me ka wā pōkole i ka haʻawina i mālama ʻia e Ellenberg et al. (2017) e pili ana i nā kumu nui o nā kumukūʻai o ke kaua e like me nā hoʻolimalima halemai, nā lawelawe olakino noʻonoʻo e hoʻēmi i nā hopena koʻikoʻi koʻikoʻi, a me ka hahai ʻana i ka ambulatory. ʻO ke aʻo ʻana he 18 mau mahina ka hahai ʻana o ka heluna kanaka kīwila Israeli ma hope o ke kaua 2014 ma Gaza i ka manawa i nānā ai nā mea noiʻi i nā kumukūʻai lapaʻau e pili ana i ka hoʻouka kaua rocket a nānā i ka demographics o ka poʻe i hoʻopiʻi i nā koi no ke kīnā. ʻO ka hapa nui o nā kumukūʻai i ka makahiki mua e pili ana i ka hale hoʻokipa a me ke kōkua no ka hoʻomaha kaumaha (Ellenberg et al., 2017). Ua hoʻonui ʻia nā kumukūʻai Ambulatory a me ka hoʻoponopono hou ʻana i ka makahiki ʻelua (Ellenberg et al., 2017). ʻAʻole i loaʻa ia mau hopena kālā i ka hoʻokele waiwai i ka makahiki mua akā ua hoʻomau ʻia ka ulu ʻana i ka wā lōʻihi.
ʻApekanikana
Mai ka pūʻali koa o ka ʻĀpana Demokarata o Afghanistan i ka makahiki 1978 a me ka hoʻouka kaua ʻana o Soviet i 1979, ua ʻike ʻo Afghans i kanakolu makahiki o ka hana ʻino, kaua kīwila, hoʻopaʻi, a me ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe lāhui (Callen, Isaqzadeh, Long, & Sprenger, 2014). Ke hoʻomau nei ka hakakā kūloko i ka hopena maikaʻi ʻole i ka ulu ʻana o ka hoʻokele waiwai o Afghanistan i hōʻemi i ka waiwai pilikino koʻikoʻi (Huelin, 2017). Aia nā ʻano hoʻomana a me nā lāhui like ʻole ma Afghanistan me nā ʻohana ʻumikūmākolu e paʻa ana i nā manaʻo like ʻole e hoʻokūkū ana no ka hoʻokele waiwai (Dixon, Kerr, & Mangahas, 2014).
ʻO ka hopena i ke kūlana hoʻokele waiwai ma Afghanistan he feudalism e like me ka hakakā me ka holomua waiwai o Afghanistan (Dixon, Kerr, & Mangahas, 2014). ʻO Afghanistan ke kumu o 87% o ka opium a me ka heroin o ka honua mai ka hōʻino ʻana i ka Taliban ma 2001 (Dixon et al., 2014). Ma kahi o 80% o ka heluna kanaka o Afghan e pili ana i ka mahiʻai, ua manaʻo ʻia ʻo Afghanistan he hoʻokele waiwai agrarian (Dixon et al., 2014). He liʻiliʻi nā mākeke ʻo Afghanistan, ʻo ka opium ka mea nui loa (Dixon et al., 2014).
Ma Afghanistan, he ʻāina i hoʻoili kaua ʻia i loaʻa nā kumuwaiwai kūlohelohe e hiki ke kōkua iā Afghanistan i ka lilo ʻana i mea kōkua liʻiliʻi, nā mea hoʻopukapuka a me nā kaiāulu e pili ana i nā kulekele hakakā ʻole mai ke aupuni a me nā mea hoʻopukapuka (del Castillo, 2014). ʻO ka hoʻopukapuka pololei ʻana o nā ʻāina ʻē (FDI) i nā minerala a me nā mahiʻai mahiʻai, a me nā kulekele aupuni e kākoʻo i kēia mau hoʻopukapuka, ua hoʻoulu i nā hakakā me nā kaiāulu i haʻalele ʻia (del Castillo, 2014).
Ua manaʻo ʻia e ka papahana Costs of War ma Watson Institute for International Studies ʻo ka hoʻolilo ʻana o US mai 2001 a 2011 ma o ka hoʻouka ʻana iā Iraq, Afghanistan, a me Pakistan he $ 3.2 i $ 4 trillion ʻekolu mau manawa o ka manaʻo manaʻo (Masco, 2013). ʻO kēia mau kumukūʻai i komo i nā kaua maoli, nā kumukūʻai lapaʻau no ka poʻe kahiko, ka waihona kālā pale kūhelu, nā papahana kōkua o ka Moku'āina, a me ka Homeland Security (Masco, 2013). Ua kākau nā mea kākau ma kahi kokoke i 10,000 US pūʻali koa a me nā mea hana ʻaelike i pepehi ʻia a me 675,000 mau koi kīnā i waiho ʻia i Veteran Affairs e Kepakemapa 2011 (Masco, 2013). Ua manaʻo ʻia nā poʻe kīwila ma Iraq, Afghanistan, a me Pakistan ma ka liʻiliʻi ma 137,000, me ka 3.2 miliona mau mea mahuka mai Iraq i hoʻoneʻe ʻia i kēia manawa ma ka ʻāina (Masco, 2013). Ua aʻo pū ka papahana Cost of Wars i nā koina ʻē aʻe e pili ana i nā kumukūʻai kaiapuni a me nā kumukūʻai manawa kūpono (Masco, 2013).
Kūkākūkā a me ka hopena
ʻIke ʻia e pili ana ka hakakā ʻano hoʻomana i nā ʻāina, nā kānaka, a me nā hui ma nā ʻano hoʻokele waiwai. Hiki ke ʻike ʻia kēlā mau kumukūʻai i nā kumukūʻai pololei, e like me ka mea i ʻike ʻia ma nā ʻatikala i loiloi ʻia i kēia haʻawina, a me ke ʻano ʻole, e like me ka hoʻohālikelike ʻia e kahi noiʻi i kālele ʻia ma nā panalāʻau hema ʻekolu o Thailand - Pattani, Yala, a me Narathiwat (Ford, Jampaklay, & Chamratrithirong, 2018). I loko o kēia haʻawina i komo pū me 2,053 mau ʻōpio Muslim mau makahiki he 18-24 mau makahiki, ua hōʻike ka poʻe i komo i nā haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa o nā hōʻailona psychiatric ʻoiai he hapa liʻiliʻi i hōʻike i kahi "nui kiʻekiʻe ka nui e hopohopo" (Ford et al., 2018, p. . 1). Loaʻa nā hōʻailona psychiatric a me nā haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa o ka hauʻoli i nā poʻe i makemake e neʻe no ka hana i kahi ʻē aʻe (Ford et al., 2018). Ua hōʻike ka nui o nā poʻe i nā hopohopo e pili ana i ka hana ʻino i ko lākou ola i kēlā me kēia lā a hōʻike i nā pilikia he nui i ka ʻimi ʻana i ka hoʻonaʻauao, me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka lāʻau lapaʻau, ke kumukūʻai o ka hoʻonaʻauao, a me ka hoʻoweliweli o ka hana ʻino (Ford, et al., 2018). Ma keʻano kūikawā, ua hōʻike nā kāne kāne i nā hopohopo e pili ana i ka kānalua o ko lākou komo ʻana i ka hana ʻino a me ka hoʻohana lāʻau (Ford et al., 2018). ʻO ka hoʻolālā e neʻe a noho paha ma Pattani, Yala a me Narathiwat e pili ana i ka hana i kaupalena ʻia a me ka hoʻoweliweli o ka hana ʻino (Ford et al., 2018). Ua ʻike ʻia ʻoiai ʻo ka hapa nui o ka poʻe ʻōpio e neʻe nei i mua me ko lākou ola a he nui ka poʻe e hōʻike i ka habituation i ka hana ʻino, ʻo ke kaumaha o ka hoʻokele waiwai ma muli o ka hana ʻino a me ka hoʻoweliweli o ka hana ʻino i hoʻopilikia pinepine i ko lākou ola i kēlā me kēia lā (Ford et al., 2018). ʻAʻole hiki ke helu ʻia nā kumukūʻai kūʻokoʻa waiwai ma ka palapala.
He nui nā wahi ʻē aʻe o ka hopena hoʻokele waiwai o ka hakakā ʻano hoʻomana e koi hou i ka noiʻi ʻana, me ka noiʻi e pili ana i ka helu ʻana i nā correlations e pili ana i nā hakakā ethno-religious a me nā hopena i ka hoʻokele waiwai, nā ʻāina a me nā ʻāina kikoʻī, a me ka lōʻihi o ka hakakā a me kona hopena. ma ka waiwai. E like me kā Collier (1999) i ʻōlelo ai, “Hoʻohuli pū ka maluhia i nā hoʻololi haku mele i hana ʻia e ke kaua kīwila lōʻihi. ʻO kahi manaʻo, ma hope o ka pau ʻana o nā kaua lōʻihi, ʻike nā hana hoʻopilikia i ke kaua i ka ulu wikiwiki: hoʻonui ʻia ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana o ka maluhia ma o ka hoʻololi haku mele "(p. 182). No ka hoʻoikaika ʻana i ka maluhia, he mea nui ka hoʻomau ʻana i ka noiʻi ma kēia wahi.
Manaʻo Manaʻo no ka Noʻonoʻo Hou: Nā Kūlana Interdisciplinary i Peacebuilding
Eia hou, inā noi hou ʻia ka noiʻi ʻana i ka hoʻoikaika ʻana i ka maluhia e like me ka mea i kūkākūkā mua ʻia e pili ana i ka hakakā ethno-religious, he aha ke ʻano, nā kaʻina hana, a me nā ala kuʻuna e kōkua i kēlā noiʻi? ʻAʻole hiki ke haʻalele ʻia ke koʻikoʻi o ka hana like ʻana i ka maluhia e like me nā ʻano aʻoaʻo like ʻole, akā ʻaʻole i kaupalena ʻia, ka hana kaiaulu, sociology, ʻoihana waiwai, pili honua, haʻawina hoʻomana, haʻawina wahine, mōʻaukala, anthropology, haʻawina kamaʻilio, a me ka ʻepekema politika. kaʻina hana hoʻomalu maluhia me nā ʻano hana like ʻole a me nā ʻano hana, ʻo ia hoʻi nā ʻano kumu.
ʻO ka hōʻike ʻana i ka hiki ke aʻo i ka hoʻoholo hakakā a me ka hoʻoponopono maluhia i mea e kūkulu ai i ka pono lāhui, pilikanaka, kaiapuni, a me ka hoʻokele waiwai he mea nui ia i ka papa haʻawina hoʻonaʻauao hana kaiaulu a puka puka. Nui nā hoʻopaʻi i komo i ke aʻo ʻana i ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka hakakā, a ʻo ka hui pū ʻana o ia mau aʻo e hiki ke hoʻoikaika i ke kaʻina hana maluhia. ʻAʻole i ʻike ʻia ka noiʻi ʻana i ka ʻikepili ma o ka ʻimi ʻana i nā palapala i loiloi ʻia e nā hoa e pili ana i ke aʻo ʻana i ka hoʻonā paio mai kahi hiʻohiʻona inter-professional, me ka multidisciplinarity, interdisciplinarity a me ka transdisciplinarity perspectives, nā hiʻohiʻona e kōkua i ka hohonu, ākea, a me ka waiwai o ka hoʻoholo hakakā a nā ala hoʻomalu maluhia.
Hoʻohana ʻia e ka ʻoihana hana kaiaulu, ua hoʻomohala ʻia ka hiʻohiʻona kaiaola mai ka ʻōnaehana ʻōnaehana a hāʻawi i ka manaʻo noʻonoʻo no ka ulu ʻana o ke ʻano generalist i ka hana hana kaiaulu (Suppes & Wells, 2018). Hoʻopili ka manaʻo generalist i nā pae he nui, a i ʻole nā ʻōnaehana, o ka wawao ʻana, e like me ke kanaka, ka ʻohana, ka hui, ka hui, a me ke kaiāulu. Ma kahi o ke kūkulu maluhia a me ka hoʻonā hakakā, hoʻohui ʻia ka mokuʻāina, ka ʻāina, a me ke ao holoʻokoʻa ma ke ʻano he pae o ka hana ʻana ʻoiai ke hana pinepine ʻia kēia mau pae ma ke ʻano he hui a me nā pae kaiāulu. In Kiʻi 1 ma lalo nei, hoʻohana ʻia ka mokuʻāina, ka ʻāina, a me ke ao holoʻokoʻa ma ke ʻano he pae ʻokoʻa (nā ʻōnaehana) o ka hana. Hāʻawi kēia manaʻo manaʻo i nā ʻano aʻoaʻo like ʻole me ka ʻike a me nā mākau i ka maluhia a me ka hoʻoholo ʻana i nā paio e hui pū i nā pae kikoʻī, e hopena i kēlā me kēia aʻo e hāʻawi i ko lākou ikaika i nā kaʻina hana hoʻoholo maluhia a me nā hoʻoholo hakakā. E like me ka mea i hoakakaia ma Kiʻi 1'A'ole 'ae wale, akā, paipai 'ia nā ho'opa'i a pau e komo i loko o ke ka'ina hana ho'omalu maluhia a me ka ho'oholo 'ana i ka hakakā ma ka hana pū 'ana me nā 'ano a'o like 'ole e like me ka hakakā lāhui.
ʻO ka loiloi hou aʻe o ka hoʻonā ʻana i ka hakakā a me ka wehewehe ʻana i ka papa hana maluhia a me nā ʻano aʻo i ka hana kaiaulu a me nā hoʻopaʻi ʻē aʻe e ʻōlelo ʻia e like me nā hana maikaʻi loa no ka maluhia e hiki ke wehewehe hohonu a nānā ʻia no nā hana hoʻomalu. ʻO nā ʻokoʻa i aʻo ʻia ʻo ia nā haʻawina a me ka piko o nā aʻo e aʻo ana i nā papa hoʻoholo hakakā a me ke komo ʻana o nā haumāna i ka hoʻoholo hakakā honua. ʻO ka hoʻopaʻi hana kaiaulu, no ka laʻana, e kālele ana i ka pono pilikanaka, lāhui, hoʻokele waiwai, a me ke kaiapuni i ka hoʻonā hakakā e like me ka mea i ʻōlelo ʻia ma ka Council on Social Work Education 2022 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards for Baccalaureate and Master's Programs (p. 9, Council on Social Hoʻonaʻauao hana, 2022):
Māmā 2: Hoʻonui i nā Kuleana Kanaka a me ka Pono Kaiāulu, Lahui, Hoʻokele waiwai, a me ke Kaiapuni
Hoʻomaopopo ka poʻe hana kaiaulu i kēlā me kēia kanaka me ka nānā ʻole i ke kūlana o ke kaiāulu he mau pono kanaka koʻikoʻi. Ua ʻike nā poʻe hana kaiaulu e pili ana i ka hui ʻana o ka honua a me ka hoʻomau mau ʻana i ka mōʻaukala e hopena i ka hoʻokaumaha a me ka racism, me ka hana a me ka pane ʻana o ka hana kaiaulu. Hoʻoponopono koʻikoʻi ka poʻe hana kaiaulu i ka hāʻawiʻana i ka mana a me ka pono i loko o ka hui kaiaulu i mea e hoʻoikaika ai i ka pilikanaka, ka lāhui, ka hoʻokele waiwai, a me ke kaiapuni ma o ka ho'ēmiʻana i ka ponoʻole a me ka hōʻoiaʻana i ka hanohano a me ka mahalo i nā mea a pau. Kūleʻa ka poʻe hana kaiaulu a hoʻokomo i nā hoʻolālā e hoʻopau i nā pale kūkulu hoʻokaumaha e hōʻoia i ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻia ʻana o nā waiwai pilikanaka, nā kuleana, a me nā kuleana a mālama ʻia nā pono kīwila, politika, waiwai, pilikanaka, a me ka moʻomeheu.
Nā limahana hana kaiaulu:
a) kākoʻo i nā pono kanaka ma nā pae pākahi, ʻohana, hui, hui, a me nā ʻōnaehana kaiaulu; a
b) komo i nā hana e hoʻoikaika i nā pono kanaka e hāpai i ka pono pilikanaka, lāhui, hoʻokele waiwai, a me ke kaiapuni.
ʻO ka nānā ʻana i ka ʻikepili, i hana ʻia ma o kahi laʻana o nā papa hoʻonā paio ma o nā papahana kulanui a me ke kulanui ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa a ma ka honua holoʻokoʻa, ʻoiai ʻo nā papa e aʻo i nā manaʻo o ka hoʻonā hakakā, ʻaʻole hāʻawi pinepine ʻia nā papa i kēia mau poʻo inoa i ka hoʻopaʻi ʻana i ka hana kaiaulu a i loko. nā ʻoihana ʻē aʻe. Ua loaʻa hou i ka noiʻi ka loli nui o ka helu o nā aʻo i pili i ka hoʻoholo hakakā, ka manaʻo o kēlā mau aʻo i ka hoʻoholo hakakā, kahi o nā papa hoʻoholo hakakā a me nā papahana i loko o ke kulanui a i ʻole ke kulanui, a me ka helu a me nā ʻano o nā papa hoʻoholo hakakā a me nā manaʻo. Loaʻa ka noiʻi i nā ʻano like ʻole, ikaika, a me ka hui pū ʻana i waena o nā ʻoihana a me nā hana e hoʻoholo i nā paio me nā manawa no ka noiʻi hou a me ke kūkākūkā ʻana ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa a ma ka honua holoʻokoʻa (Conrad, Reyes, & Stewart, 2022; Dyson, del Mar Fariña, Gurrola, & Cross-Denny, 2020; Friedman, 2019; Hatiboğlu, Özateş Gelmez, & Öngen, 2019; Onken, Franks, Lewis, & Han, 2021).
ʻO ka ʻoihana hana kaiaulu ma ke ʻano he mea hoʻoponopono maluhia a me nā loea hoʻonā hakakā e hoʻohana i ke kumumanaʻo kaiaola i kā lākou hana. No ka laʻana, ua noiʻi ʻia nā ʻano hana kipi i hoʻohana ʻole ʻia (Ryckman, 2020; Cunningham, Dahl, & Frugé 2017) (Cunningham & Doyle, 2021). Ua hāʻawi ka poʻe hoʻomaʻamaʻa maluhia a me nā loea i ka hoʻokele kipi (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021). Ua ʻike ʻo Cunningham lāua ʻo Loyle (2021) i ka noiʻi ʻana e pili ana i nā hui kipi i nā ʻano a me nā hana i hōʻike ʻia e nā kipi ʻaʻole i loko o ke ʻano o ke kaua ʻana, me ke kūkulu ʻana i nā ʻoihana kūloko a me ka hoʻolako ʻana i nā lawelawe kaiāulu (Mampilly, 2011; Arjona, 2016a; Arjona , Kasfir, & Mampilly, 2015). Hoʻohui i ka ʻike i loaʻa mai kēia mau haʻawina, ua kālele ka noiʻi i ka nānā ʻana i nā ʻano e pili ana i kēia mau ʻano hoʻomalu i nā lāhui he nui (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021; Huang, 2016; Heger & Jung, 2017; Stewart, 2018). Eia nō naʻe, ʻike pinepine nā haʻawina o ke aupuni kipi i nā pilikia hoʻomalu ma ke ʻano he ʻāpana o nā kaʻina hoʻoponopono hakakā a i ʻole ke kālele wale ʻana i nā hana hoʻomāinoino (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021). He mea maikaʻi ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka ʻōnaehana kaiaola i ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka ʻike interdisciplinary a me nā mākau i ke kūkulu maluhia a me nā kaʻina hoʻoholo hakakā.
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