Kutsutsa Mafanizo Opanda Mtendere pa Chikhulupiriro ndi Fuko: Njira Yolimbikitsira Diplomacy, Chitukuko ndi Chitetezo.
Kudalirika
Nkhani yaikuluyi ikufuna kutsutsa mafanizo opanda mtendere omwe akhala akugwiritsidwa ntchito ndikupitirizabe kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'nkhani zathu za chikhulupiriro ndi fuko monga njira imodzi yolimbikitsira zokambirana, chitukuko ndi chitetezo. Zimenezi n’zofunika chifukwa mafanizo si “mawu opatsa chidwi” chabe. Mphamvu ya mafanizo imadalira kuthekera kwawo kutengera zochitika zatsopano kuti alole kuti zatsopano komanso zodziwika bwino zachidziwitso zimvetsetsedwe potengera zakale komanso zowoneka bwino, ndikukhala ngati maziko ndi zifukwa zopangira mfundo. Choncho tiyenera kuchita mantha ndi mafanizo amene akhala ndalama mu nkhani zathu za chikhulupiriro ndi fuko. Timamva mobwerezabwereza momwe maubwenzi athu amawonetsera kupulumuka kwa Darwin. Ngati tivomereza khalidweli, tingakhale oyenerera kuletsa maubwenzi onse a anthu monga khalidwe lankhanza ndi losatukuka limene palibe munthu amene ayenera kulolera. Chotero tiyenera kukana mafanizo amene amaika maunansi achipembedzo ndi mafuko m’lingaliro loipa ndi kulimbikitsa khalidwe laudani, losasamala, ndipo, pomalizira pake, ladyera.
Introduction
Pa June 16, 2015 amalankhula ku Trump Tower ku New York City kulengeza kampeni yake yofuna kukhala purezidenti wa United States, woimira Republican Donald Trump adati "Mexico ikatumiza anthu ake, satumiza zabwino kwambiri. Sakukutumizani, akukutumizirani anthu omwe ali ndi mavuto ambiri ndipo akubweretsa mavutowo. Akubweretsa mankhwala osokoneza bongo, akubweretsa umbanda. Ndi ogwirira ndipo ena, ndikuganiza, ndi anthu abwino, koma ndimalankhula ndi alonda a m'malire ndipo amatiuza zomwe tikupeza” (Kohn, 2015). Fanizo lotere la "ife-kutsutsa-iwo", akutsutsa Wothirira ndale wa CNN Sally Kohn, "sikuti ndi wosayankhula koma wogawanitsa komanso wowopsa" (Kohn, 2015). Ananenanso kuti: "M'maganizidwe a Trump, si anthu aku Mexico okha omwe ndi oyipa - onse ndi ogwirira komanso olamulira mankhwala osokoneza bongo, a Trump akuneneratu popanda umboni uliwonse wotsimikizira izi - koma Mexico dzikolo lilinso loyipa, kutumiza dala 'anthu amenewo' ndi ' mavuto amenewo "(Kohn, 2015).
Poyankhulana ndi a NBC's Meet the Press host Chuck Todd kuti aulutsidwe Lamlungu m'mawa pa Seputembara 20, 2015, Ben Carson, woimira Republican ku The White House, adati: "Sindinganene kuti tiyike Msilamu kuti aziyang'anira dziko lino. . Sindingavomereze izi ”(Pengelly, 2015). Kenako Todd anamufunsa kuti: “Ndiye kodi umakhulupirira kuti Chisilamu chimagwirizana ndi malamulo oyendetsera dzikolo?” Carson adayankha: "Ayi, sinditero, sinditero" (Pengelly, 2015). Monga Martin Pengelly, The Guardian (UK) mtolankhani ku New York, akutikumbutsa, "Ndime VI ya malamulo aku US imati: Palibe Chiyeso chachipembedzo chomwe chidzafunikire ngati Chiyeneretso ku Ofesi iliyonse kapena Chikhulupiliro chapagulu pansi pa United States" ndi "Kusinthidwa koyamba kwalamulo kumayamba. : Congress sidzapanga lamulo lokhudza kukhazikitsidwa kwachipembedzo, kapena kuletsa kuchitapo kanthu mwaufulu ..." (Pengelly, 2015).
Ngakhale kuti Carson akanakhululukidwa chifukwa chosanyalanyaza tsankho lomwe adapirira ali wachinyamata waku Africa waku America ndikuti popeza ambiri mwa Afirika omwe anali akapolo ku America anali Asilamu, motero, ndizotheka kuti makolo ake anali Asilamu, sangatero. , akhululukidwe chifukwa chosadziwa momwe Qur'an ndi Islam ya Thomas Jefferson inathandizira kupanga malingaliro a Abambo Oyambitsa Achimereka pa chipembedzo ndi kugwirizana kwa Chisilamu ndi demokalase ndipo, motero, Constitution ya America, chifukwa chakuti iye ndi neurosurgeon ndi kuwerenga bwino kwambiri. Monga Denise A. Spellberg, pulofesa wa Islamic History and Middle East Studies pa yunivesite ya Texas ku Austin, pogwiritsa ntchito umboni wosatsutsika wozikidwa pa kafukufuku wovuta, akuwulula m'buku lake lodziwika bwino lotchedwa. Thomas Jefferson's Qur'an: Islam ndi Oyambitsa (2014), Chisilamu chidatenga gawo lofunikira pakuumba malingaliro a Abambo Oyambitsa Achimereka pa ufulu wachipembedzo.
Spellberg akusimba nkhani ya momwe mu 1765 - zaka 11 asanalembe Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson adagula Qur'an, yomwe inali chiyambi cha chidwi chake mu Islam, ndipo adagula mabuku ambiri okhudza mbiri ya Middle East. , zilankhulo, ndi maulendo, kutenga zolemba zambiri za Islam monga zikugwirizana ndi malamulo a Chingelezi. Ananena kuti Jefferson ankafuna kumvetsa Chisilamu chifukwa pofika 1776 ankaganiza kuti Asilamu ndi nzika za dziko lake latsopano. Ananenanso kuti ena mwa Oyambitsa, Jefferson wamkulu mwa iwo, adatengera malingaliro a Chidziwitso pa kulolera kwa Asilamu kupanga zomwe zinali zongopeka chabe kukhala maziko olamulira ku America. Mwanjira imeneyi, Asilamu adawonekera ngati maziko a nthano za nthawi yayitali, yodziwika bwino yachipembedzo yaku America yomwe ingaphatikizeponso ang'onoang'ono achikatolika ndi achiyuda omwe amanyozedwa. Ananenanso kuti mkangano wapagulu wokhudzana ndi kuphatikizidwa kwa Asilamu, pomwe adani ena a Jefferson angamunyozetse mpaka kumapeto kwa moyo wake, adawonekera motsimikiza pakuwerengera kwa Oyambitsa kuti asakhazikitse dziko lachiprotestanti, monga atha kukhala nawo. zachitika. Zowonadi, momwe kukayikira za Chisilamu kumapitilira pakati pa anthu aku America monga Carson komanso kuchuluka kwa nzika zachisilamu zaku America kukukulirakulira mpaka mamiliyoni, nkhani yowulula ya Spellberg ya lingaliro lalikulu la Oyambitsa ndi yofunika kwambiri kuposa kale. Bukhu lake ndi lofunika kwambiri pakumvetsetsa malingaliro omwe analipo pakulengedwa kwa United States ndi zofunikira zake pamibadwo yamakono ndi yamtsogolo.
Kuonjezera apo, monga tikuonetsera m'mabuku athu ena a Chisilamu (Bangura, 2003; Bangura, 2004; Bangura, 2005a; Bangura, 2005b; Bangura, 2011; ndi Bangura ndi Al-Nouh, 2011), demokalase ya Chisilamu imagwirizana ndi demokalase yaku Western. , ndi malingaliro a kutenga nawo mbali kwa demokarasi ndi ufulu, monga momwe zinasonyezedwera ndi Rashidun Caliphate, analipo kale m'dziko lachi Islam lapakati. Mwachitsanzo, mu Magwero a Mtendere wa Chisilamu, tikuwona kuti wafilosofi wachisilamu wamkulu Al-Farabi, wobadwa Abu Nasr Ibn al-Farakh al-Farabi (870-980), yemwe amadziwikanso kuti "bwana wachiwiri" (monga Aristotle nthawi zambiri amatchedwa "mbuye woyamba"). , ankakhulupirira kuti dziko lachisilamu linali labwino kwambiri ndipo iye analiyerekezera ndi la Plato Republic, ngakhale adachoka ku lingaliro la Plato loti dziko loyenera lilamuliridwe ndi mfumu yafilosofi ndipo adanena m'malo mwake mneneri (PBUH) yemwe ali m'chiyanjano chachindunji ndi Allah/Mulungu (SWT). Popanda mneneri, Al-Farabi adawona kuti demokalase ndiyoyandikira kwambiri kudziko loyenera, ndikulozera ku Rashidun Caliphate monga chitsanzo m'mbiri yachisilamu. Anatchula zinthu zitatu zofunika kwambiri za demokalase ya Chisilamu: (1) mtsogoleri wosankhidwa ndi anthu; (b) Sharia, zomwe zikhoza kuthetsedwa ndi oweruza olamulira ngati kuli kofunikira kutengera wadzib- zofunika, manda- zololedwa, muba- osayanjanitsika, haram- zoletsedwa, ndi makutu- zonyansa; ndi kudzipereka kuchita (3) Shura, njira yapadera yolankhulirana ndi Mtumiki Muhammad (SAW). Timawonjezera kuti maganizo a Al-Farabi akuwonekera mu ntchito za Thomas Aquinas, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant ndi afilosofi ena achisilamu omwe adamutsatira (Bangura, 2004: 104-124).
Timazindikiranso mu Magwero a Mtendere wa Chisilamu kuti woweruza wamkulu wachisilamu komanso wasayansi wandale Abu Al-Hassan 'Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib Al-Mawardi (972-1058) adafotokoza mfundo zitatu zoyambira pazandale zachisilamu: (1) tawhid—chikhulupiriro chakuti Allah (SWT) ndiye Mlengi, Mchirikizo ndi Mbuye wa chilichonse chimene chili pa Dziko Lapansi; (2) Thandizani-njira yomwe chilamulo cha Allah (SWT) chimatsitsidwa ndikulandilidwa; ndi (3) Khilifa kapena kuimira—munthu akuyenera kukhala woimira Allah (SWT) pano pa Dziko Lapansi. Akufotokoza momwe demokalase ya Chisilamu ilili motere: (a) nthambi yayikulu yopangidwa ndi Amir(b) nthambi yamalamulo kapena khonsolo ya alangizi yophatikiza ndi Shura, ndi (c) nthambi ya zamalamulo yomwe ili ndi a Chifukwa chiyani? amene amatanthauzira Sharia. Waperekanso mfundo zinayi zotsogola za boma: (1) Cholinga cha dziko la Chisilamu ndikulenga anthu monga momwe Qur’an ndi Sunnah zanenera; (2) boma lidzakakamiza Sharia monga lamulo lalikulu la boma; (3) ulamuliro uli mwa anthu—anthu angathe kukonzekera ndi kukhazikitsa mtundu uliwonse wa boma wogwirizana ndi mfundo ziwiri zam’mbuyo komanso zofunika za nthawi ndi chilengedwe; (4) mulimonse momwe boma lingakhalire, liyenera kukhazikitsidwa pa mfundo yoimira anthu ambiri, chifukwa ulamuliro ndi wa anthu (Bangura, 2004: 143-167).
Ifenso tikulozera mu Magwero a Mtendere wa Chisilamu kuti patatha zaka chikwi pambuyo pa Al-Farabi, Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) adadziwika kuti Caliphate yachisilamu yoyambirira imagwirizana ndi demokalase. Potsutsa kuti Chisilamu chinali ndi "miyala yamtengo wapatali" ya bungwe lazachuma ndi demokalase la magulu achisilamu, Iqbal adayitanitsa kukhazikitsidwa kwamisonkhano yamalamulo yosankhidwa ndi anthu kuti akhazikitsenso chiyero choyambirira cha Chisilamu (Bangura, 2004: 201-224).
Zowonadi, chikhulupiriro ndi fuko ndizovuta zazikulu zandale komanso zaumunthu m'dziko lathu si nkhani yotsutsana. Dzikoli lili ndi mikangano ya zipembedzo ndi mafuko. Maboma a maboma kaŵirikaŵiri amayesa kunyalanyaza ndi kupondereza zokhumba za magulu achipembedzo ndi mafuko, kapena kukakamiza anthu apamwamba kwambiri. Poyankhapo, magulu achipembedzo ndi mafuko amasonkhanitsa ndi kuyika zofuna za boma kuyambira kuyimilira ndi kutenga nawo mbali mpaka kuteteza ufulu wa anthu ndi kudzilamulira. Kulimbikitsana mitundu ndi zipembedzo kumatenga njira zosiyanasiyana kuyambira zipani zandale mpaka kuchita zachiwawa (kuti mudziwe zambiri za izi, onani Said ndi Bangura, 1991-1992).
Ubale pakati pa mayiko ukupitirizabe kusintha kuchoka m'mbiri yakale ya mayiko kupita ku dongosolo lovuta kwambiri limene magulu a anthu amitundu ndi zipembedzo amapikisana pofuna kukopa anthu. Dongosolo lamasiku ano lapadziko lonse lapansi nthawi imodzi ndi lachipongwe komanso logwirizana kwambiri ndi mayiko osiyanasiyana kuposa mayiko omwe tikusiya. Mwachitsanzo, pamene Kumadzulo kwa Ulaya anthu azikhalidwe zosiyanasiyana akugwirizana, ku Africa ndi Kum’maŵa kwa Yuropu zomangira za chikhalidwe ndi zilankhulo zikusemphana ndi mizere ya madera (kuti mumve zambiri pa izi, onani Said ndi Bangura, 1991-1992).
Poganizira mikangano pa nkhani za chikhulupiriro ndi fuko, kusanthula zinenero mophiphiritsira pamutuwu ndikofunikira chifukwa, monga momwe ndikusonyezera kwina, mafanizo si "kulankhula kokongola" (Bangura, 2007: 61; 2002: 202). Mphamvu ya mafanizo, monga momwe Anita Wenden amaonera, imadalira luso lawo lotengera zochitika zatsopano kuti alole chidziwitso chatsopano komanso chodziwika bwino kuti chimvetsetsedwe molingana ndi zakale komanso zenizeni, komanso kukhala maziko ndi kulungamitsidwa. kupanga ndondomeko (1999:223). Komanso, monga George Lakoff ndi Mark Johnson ananenera,
Mfundo zimene zimalamulira maganizo athu si nkhani za nzeru chabe. Amayang'aniranso magwiridwe antchito athu a tsiku ndi tsiku, mpaka kuzinthu zodziwika bwino. Malingaliro athu amapanga zomwe timawona, momwe timayendera dziko lapansi, komanso momwe timakhalira ndi anthu ena. Malingaliro athu amaganizidwe motero amatenga gawo lalikulu pakutanthauzira zenizeni zatsiku ndi tsiku. Ngati tikulondola ponena kuti dongosolo lathu lamalingaliro ndilophiphiritsira, ndiye momwe timaganizira, zomwe timakumana nazo, ndipo timachita tsiku ndi tsiku ndi nkhani yofanizira (1980: 3).
Malinga ndi chigawo chapitachi, tiyenera kuchita mantha ndi mafanizo omwe asanduka ndalama m’nkhani zathu za chikhulupiriro ndi fuko. Timamva mobwerezabwereza momwe maubwenzi athu amawonetsera kupulumuka kwa Darwin. Ngati tingavomereze khalidweli, tingakhale oyenerera kuletsa maubwenzi onse amtundu wa anthu monga khalidwe lankhanza ndi losatukuka lomwe palibe gulu liyenera kulekerera. Zowonadi, omenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe agwiritsa ntchito bwino mafotokozedwe oterowo kukakamiza njira yawo.
Choncho tiyenera kukana mafanizo amene amaika ubale wathu m’njira yoipa ndi kulimbikitsa khalidwe laudani, losasamala, ndipo pamapeto pake, ladyera. Zina mwa izi ndi zopanda pake ndipo zimaphulika zikangowoneka momwe zilili, koma zina zimakhala zotsogola kwambiri ndipo zimamangidwa munjira iliyonse yamalingaliro athu apano. Ena akhoza kufotokozedwa mwachidule mu slogan; ena alibe nkomwe maina. Zina zikuwoneka kuti sizili mafanizo nkomwe, makamaka kugogomezera kosasunthika pakufunika kwa umbombo, ndipo ena akuwoneka kuti akunama pamaziko omwe ali ndi malingaliro athu monga munthu payekhapayekha, ngati kuti lingaliro lina lililonse liyenera kukhala lodana ndi munthu aliyense, kapena kuipitsitsa.
Funso lalikulu lomwe lafufuzidwa apa ndilolunjika ndithu: Ndi mitundu yanji ya mafanizo yomwe ili yofala munkhani zathu za chikhulupiriro ndi fuko? Koma tisanayankhe funsoli, n’zomveka kuti tikambirane mwachidule za njira ya chinenero chophiphiritsira, chifukwa ndiyo njira imene kusanthula kumatsatira kumakhazikitsidwa.
Njira ya Metaphorical Linguistic
Monga ndanenera m'buku lathu lotchedwa Mafanizo Opanda Mtendere, mafanizo ndi mawu ophiphiritsa (mwachitsanzo, kugwiritsa ntchito mawu momveka bwino komanso mophiphiritsa posonyeza kufananitsa ndi kufananitsa) potengera kufanana komwe kulipo pakati pa zinthu kapena zochita zina (Bangura, 2002:1). Malinga ndi David Crystal, mitundu inayi yotsatirayi yazindikirika (1992:249):
- Mafanizo odziwika bwino ndi zomwe zimapanga gawo la kumvetsetsa kwathu kwatsiku ndi tsiku kwa zomwe takumana nazo, ndipo zimakonzedwa popanda kuyesetsa, monga "kutaya ulusi wa mkangano."
- Mafanizo andakatulo onjezerani kapena phatikizani mafanizo atsiku ndi tsiku, makamaka pa zolembedwa—ndipo umu ndi momwe mawuwa amamvekera potengera ndakatulo.
- Mafanizo ophiphiritsa ndi ntchito zimene zili m’maganizo a okamba nkhani zimene zimaika patsogolo kaganizidwe kawo—mwachitsanzo, lingaliro lakuti “Kukangana ndi nkhondo” limachokera ku mafanizo monga “Ndinatsutsa malingaliro ake.”
- Mafanizo osakanikirana amagwiritsidwa ntchito kuphatikizira mafanizo osagwirizana kapena osagwirizana m'chiganizo chimodzi, monga "Uwu ndi munda wa namwali womwe uli ndi pakati ndi zotheka."
Ngakhale kugawika kwa Crystal kuli kothandiza kwambiri pamalingaliro a chilankhulo cha chilankhulo (kuyang'ana kwambiri paubale wautatu pakati pa zochitika, chilankhulo, ndi zomwe zimatanthawuza), malinga ndi chilankhulo cha pragmatics (kuyang'ana pa ubale wa polyadic pakati pazochitika, wokamba nkhani, zochitika, ndi womvera), komabe, Stephen Levinson akuwonetsa "gawo lachitatu la mafanizo" (1983: 152-153):
- Mafanizo mwadzina ndi amene ali ndi mawonekedwe BE(x, y) monga “Iago ndi nsungu.” Kuti awamvetse, womva/wowerenga ayenera kupanga fanizo lolingana nalo.
- Mafanizo oneneratu ndi omwe ali ndi mawonekedwe a G(x) kapena G(x, y) monga "Mwalimu Mazrui akupita patsogolo." Kuti amvetsetse, womvera/wowerenga ayenera kupanga fanizo lovuta lofananira.
- Mafanizo ophiphiritsa ndi omwe ali ndi mawonekedwe a G(y) odziwika ndi kukhala zosayenera ku nkhani yozungulira pamene ikumasuliridwa kwenikweni.
Kusintha mophiphiritsa ndiye nthawi zambiri kumawonetsedwa ndi liwu lomwe lili ndi tanthauzo lenileni lomwe limatenga tanthauzo losavuta. Mwachitsanzo, monga momwe Brian Weinstein akunenera,
Mwa kupanga kufanana kwadzidzidzi pakati pa zomwe zimadziwika ndi zomveka, monga galimoto kapena makina, ndi zomwe ziri zovuta komanso zododometsa, monga anthu a ku America, omvera amadabwa, akukakamizika kusamutsa, ndipo mwinamwake kukhutitsidwa. Amapezanso chipangizo chamnemonic-mawu omwe amafotokoza zovuta zovuta (1983: 8).
Zoonadi, pogwiritsa ntchito mafanizo, atsogoleri ndi anthu apamwamba amatha kupanga malingaliro ndi malingaliro, makamaka pamene anthu akhumudwa ndi zotsutsana ndi mavuto omwe ali padziko lapansi. M’nthaŵi zoterozo, monga momwe tachitira chitsanzo pambuyo pa kuukira kwa World Trade Center ku New York ndi Pentagon ku Washington, DC pa September 11, 2001, unyinji wa anthu umafunitsitsa kufotokoza ndi malangizo osavuta: mwachitsanzo, “anthu oukirawo pa September 11, 2001. 2002 imadana ndi America chifukwa cha chuma chake, popeza Amereka ndi anthu abwino, ndikuti America iyenera kuphulitsa zigawenga kulikonse komwe abwerera m'zaka zakale "(Bangura, 2: XNUMX).
M'mawu a Murray Edelman "zokonda zamkati ndi zakunja zimapangitsa kuti anthu azigwirizana ndi nthano ndi mafanizo omwe amapanga malingaliro a ndale" (1971: 67). Kumbali ina, akutero Edelman, mafanizo amagwiritsidwa ntchito kufotokoza mfundo zosafunika za nkhondo pozitcha “kulimbana kwa demokalase” kapena kunena za nkhanza ndi neocolonialism monga “kukhalapo.” Kumbali ina, akuwonjezera Edelman, mafanizo amagwiritsidwa ntchito kuopseza ndi kukwiyitsa anthu potchula mamembala a gulu la ndale monga "zigawenga" (1971: 65-74).
Zoonadi, mgwirizano wa chinenero ndi khalidwe lamtendere kapena lopanda mtendere ndi lodziwikiratu kotero kuti sitingaganizirepo. Aliyense amavomereza, malinga ndi kunena kwa Brian Weinstein, kuti chinenero ndicho maziko a chitaganya cha anthu ndi maunansi a anthu—kuti ndicho maziko a chitukuko. Popanda njira yolankhulirana iyi, a Weinstein akuti, palibe atsogoleri omwe atha kulamula zida zomwe zimafunikira kuti apange dongosolo landale lopitilira mabanja ndi oyandikana nawo. Ananenanso kuti, ngakhale timavomereza kuti luso logwiritsa ntchito mawu pofuna kunyengerera ovota ndi njira imodzi yomwe anthu amagwiritsa ntchito kuti apeze ndi kugwiritsitsa mphamvu, komanso kuti timasilira luso lolankhula ndi kulemba ngati mphatso, ife, komabe, sitichita. amawona chilankhulo ngati chinthu chosiyana, monga misonkho, yomwe imayenera kusankha mwachidwi ndi atsogoleri omwe ali ndi mphamvu kapena amayi ndi abambo omwe akufuna kupambana kapena kukopa mphamvu. Amawonjezeranso kuti sitiwona chilankhulo m'mawonekedwe kapena ndalama zopatsa phindu kwa omwe ali nazo (Weinstein 1983: 3). Chofunikira china chokhudza chilankhulo komanso machitidwe amtendere ndikuti, kutsatira Weinstein,
Njira yopangira zisankho kuti mukwaniritse zokonda zamagulu, kuumba gulu mogwirizana ndi malingaliro abwino, kuthetsa mavuto, ndi kugwirizana ndi madera ena m'dziko lamphamvu ndilofunika kwambiri pa ndale. Kusonkhanitsa ndi kuyika ndalama nthawi zambiri kumakhala gawo lazachuma, koma omwe eni ake amaligwiritsa ntchito kuwonetsa mphamvu ndi mphamvu pa ena, amalowa m'ndale. Choncho, ngati n'kotheka kusonyeza kuti chinenero ndi mutu wa zisankho ndondomeko komanso katundu kupereka ubwino, mlandu akhoza kupangidwa kuphunzira chinenero monga mmodzi wa zosintha kukankhira lotseguka kapena kutseka chitseko mphamvu, chuma, ndi kutchuka m'magulu ndikuthandizira nkhondo ndi mtendere pakati pa anthu (1983: 3).
Popeza anthu amagwiritsa ntchito mafanizo ngati kusankha mwachidziwitso pakati pa mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zilankhulo zomwe zimakhala ndi zotsatira zachikhalidwe, zachuma, ndale, zamalingaliro ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu, makamaka pamene luso la chinenero likugawidwa mosagwirizana, cholinga chachikulu cha gawo losanthula deta lomwe likutsatira ndikuwonetsa kuti mafanizo omwe agwiritsidwa ntchito m'nkhani zathu za chikhulupiriro ndi mafuko ali ndi zolinga zosiyanasiyana. Funso lalikulu ndiye ili: Kodi mafanizo angadziwike bwanji mwadongosolo munkhani? Kuti muyankhe funsoli, zolemba za Levinson pa zida zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito posanthula mafanizo m'munda wa pragmatics zachilankhulo ndizopindulitsa kwambiri.
Levinson akufotokoza za ziphunzitso zitatu zomwe zalepheretsa kusanthula kwa mafanizo m'munda wa chilankhulo cha pragmatics. Chiphunzitso choyamba ndi Chiphunzitso Chofananiza zomwe, malinga ndi Levinson, akunena kuti "Mafanizo ndi mafaniziro omwe amachotsedwa kapena kuchotsedwa zofanana" (1983: 148). Chiphunzitso chachiwiri ndi Chiphunzitso cha Chiyanjano amene, motsatira Levinson, akunena kuti “Mafanizo ndi ntchito yapadera ya mawu achilankhulo pomwe mawu akuti 'mofanizira' (kapena Yang'anani) imayikidwa m'mawu ena 'enieni' (kapena chimango), kotero kuti tanthauzo la kulunjika kumalumikizana ndi Kusintha tanthauzo la chimango, ndi mosemphanitsa” (2983:148). Chiphunzitso chachitatu ndi Chiphunzitso cha Makalata zomwe, monga Levinson akunenera, zimaphatikizapo "kujambula kwachidziwitso chimodzi kupita ku china, kulola kufufuza kapena makalata angapo" (1983: 159). Pazinthu zitatu izi, Levinson amapeza Chiphunzitso cha Makalata kukhala zothandiza kwambiri chifukwa “zili ndi ukoma wowerengera zinthu zosiyanasiyana zodziwika bwino za mafanizo: chikhalidwe cha 'non-prepositional', kapena kusadziwikiratu kwa fanizo, chizolowezi cholowa m'malo mwa konkire ndi mawu osamveka, ndi magawo osiyanasiyana omwe mafanizo amatha kuchita bwino" (1983: 160). Levinson akupitiriza kupereka lingaliro la kugwiritsa ntchito njira zitatu zotsatirazi kuti adziwe mafanizo m'malemba: (1) "kuwerengera momwe chilankhulo chilichonse kapena chosagwirizana ndi chilankhulo chimazindikirira"; (2) “dziwani m’mene mafanizo amasiyanirana ndi zilembo zina; (3) "kangozindikirika, kutanthauzira kwa mafanizo kuyenera kudalira mbali za luso lathu la kulingalira molingana" (1983: 161).
Mafanizo a Chikhulupiriro
Monga wophunzira wa kulumikizana kwa Abrahamu, zikundiyenera kuti ndiyambe gawoli ndi zomwe Chivumbulutso mu Torah yopatulika, Baibulo Lopatulika, ndi Korani yopatulika imanena za lilime. Zotsatirazi ndi zitsanzo, chimodzi kuchokera ku nthambi iliyonse ya Abrahamu, pakati pa mfundo zambiri za mu Chivumbulutso:
Torah Woyera, Salmo 34:14: “Tenga lilime lako ku zoipa, ndi milomo yako kuti isalankhule chinyengo.”
Baibulo Lopatulika, Miyambo 18:21 : “Imfa ndi moyo zili mu mphamvu ya lilime; ndipo iwo akuukonda adzadya zipatso zake.
Quran 24:24: “Tsiku malirime awo, manja awo ndi mapazi awo zidzawachitira umboni zochita zawo.
Kuchokera m’ziphunzitso zam’mbuyo, n’zoonekeratu kuti lilime likhoza kuchititsa kuti liwu limodzi kapena angapo awononge ulemu wa anthu, magulu, kapena anthu amene amamvera chisoni kwambiri. Zowonadi, kwa zaka zambiri, kugwira lilime, kupeŵa chipongwe chaching’ono, kuleza mtima ndi kudzikuza kwaletsa zowononga.
Kukambitsirana kotsala pano kwazikidwa pa mutu wa George S. Kun wakuti “Religion and Spirituality” m’buku lathu, Mafanizo Opanda Mtendere (2002) pomwe akunena kuti pamene Martin Luther King, Jr. adayambitsa nkhondo yake yomenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe koyambirira kwa zaka za m'ma 1960, adagwiritsa ntchito mafanizo ndi ziganizo zachipembedzo, osatchulanso mawu ake otchuka akuti "Ndili ndi maloto" operekedwa pamasitepe a Lincoln Memorial ku Washington, DC pa Ogasiti 28, 1963, kulimbikitsa Akuda kukhalabe ndi chiyembekezo chokhudza akhungu aku America. M’zaka za m’ma 1960, gulu la Civil Rights Movement litafika pachimake, anthu akuda ankagwirana manja n’kumaimba kuti, “Tidzagonjetsa,” fanizo lachipembedzo limene linawagwirizanitsa m’nthawi yonse yomenyera ufulu wawo. Mahatma Gandhi anagwiritsa ntchito "Satyagraha" kapena "kugwira chowonadi," ndi "kusamvera kwa anthu" kusonkhanitsa Amwenye potsutsa ulamuliro wa Britain. Potsutsana ndi zovuta zosaneneka komanso nthawi zambiri pachiwopsezo chachikulu, ambiri omenyera ufulu wamakono atengera ziganizo zachipembedzo ndi zilankhulo kuti athandizire (Kun, 2002: 121).
Anthu ochita zinthu monyanyira agwiritsanso ntchito mafanizo ndi ziganizo kuti apititse patsogolo zolinga zawo. Osama bin Laden adadzipanga yekha ngati munthu wofunikira kwambiri m'mbiri yachisilamu yamakono, akudutsa mu psyche ya Kumadzulo, osatchulapo za Muslim, pogwiritsa ntchito mafanizo ndi mafanizo achipembedzo. Umu ndi momwe bin Laden nthawi ina adagwiritsa ntchito mawu ake kulangiza otsatira ake m'magazini a October-November, 1996. Ndida'ul Islam (“The Call of Islam”), magazini yankhondo yachisilamu yofalitsidwa ku Australia:
Chomwe chikuyenera [sic] mosakayikira pankhondo yoopsa ya Chiyuda ndi Chikhristu cholimbana ndi dziko lachisilamu, zomwe sizinawonekerepo, ndikuti Asilamu akonzekere zonse zomwe angathe kuti athamangitse adani, pankhondo, pazachuma, kudzera m'ntchito zaumishonale. , ndi madera ena onse…. (Kun, 2002:122).
Mawu a Bin Laden anawoneka osavuta koma anakhala ovuta kuchita nawo mwauzimu ndi mwanzeru zaka zingapo pambuyo pake. Kudzera m’mawu amenewa, bin Laden ndi otsatira ake anawononga miyoyo ndi katundu. Kwa omwe amatchedwa "ankhondo oyera," omwe amakhala ndi moyo kufa, izi ndizochita zolimbikitsa (Kun, 2002: 122).
Anthu aku America ayesanso kumvetsetsa mawu ndi mafanizo achipembedzo. Ena amavutika kugwiritsa ntchito mafanizo m’nthawi yamtendere komanso yamtendere. Mlembi wa Chitetezo Donald Rumsfeld atafunsidwa pamsonkhano wa atolankhani pa September 20, 2001 kuti abwere ndi mawu ofotokoza mtundu wa nkhondo yomwe dziko la United States likukumana nalo, iye anafufuza mawu ndi ziganizo. Koma Purezidenti wa United States, a George W. Bush, adabwera ndi mawu osamveka komanso mafanizo achipembedzo kuti atonthoze komanso kupatsa mphamvu anthu aku America pambuyo pa ziwopsezo za 2001 (Kun, 2002: 122).
Mafanizo ophiphiritsa achipembedzo akhala akugwira ntchito yofunika kwambiri m’mbuyomu komanso nkhani zanzeru za masiku ano. Mafanizo ophiphiritsa achipembedzo amathandiza kumvetsetsa chinenero chosadziwika bwino ndi kupititsa patsogolo malire ake. Amapereka zifukwa zomveka zomveka bwino kuposa mfundo zosankhidwa molondola. Komabe, popanda kugwiritsa ntchito molondola komanso nthawi yoyenera, mafanizo achipembedzo amatha kuyambitsa zochitika zomwe sanamvetsetsedwe kale, kapena kuzigwiritsa ntchito ngati njira yopititsira patsogolo chinyengo. Mafanizo achipembedzo monga “nkhondo yamtanda,” “jihad,” ndi “chabwino kutsutsana ndi choipa,” omwe Purezidenti George W. Bush ndi Osama bin Laden anagwiritsa ntchito pofotokoza zochita za wina ndi mnzake pa kuukira kwa United States pa September 11, 2001, zinasonkhezera anthu achipembedzo. magulu ndi magulu kuti atenge mbali (Kun, 2002: 122).
Zomanga mwaluso zophiphiritsa, zonena zambiri zachipembedzo, zili ndi mphamvu zazikulu zolowera m'mitima ndi m'malingaliro a Asilamu ndi akhristu ndipo zidzapitilira omwe adazipanga (Kun, 2002: 122). Mwambo wachinsinsi nthawi zambiri umanena kuti mafanizo achipembedzo alibe mphamvu zofotokozera (Kun, 2002: 123). Zowonadi, otsutsa ndi miyamboyi tsopano azindikira momwe chilankhulo chimafikira pakuwononga anthu ndikuyika chipembedzo chimodzi ndi china (Kun, 2002: 123).
Kuukira koopsa kwa September 11, 2001 ku United States kunatsegula njira zambiri zatsopano zomvetsetsa mafanizo; komatu aka sikanali koyamba kuti anthu avutike kumvetsa mphamvu ya mafanizo opanda mtendere achipembedzo. Mwachitsanzo, anthu aku America sanamvetsetse momwe kuyimba kwa mawu kapena mafanizo monga Mujahidin kapena "ankhondo oyera," Jihad kapena "nkhondo yopatulika" idathandizira kutsogoza a Taliban. Mafanizo amenewa anathandiza Osama bin Laden kupanga chilakolako chake chodana ndi azungu ndipo akukonzekera zaka makumi angapo asanakhale kutchuka chifukwa cha kuukira United States. Anthu agwiritsa ntchito mafanizo achipembedzowa ngati chothandizira kugwirizanitsa anthu ochita zachiwawa pofuna kuyambitsa ziwawa (Kun, 2002: 123).
Monga momwe Purezidenti wa Irani, Mohammed Khatami adalangizira, "dziko lapansi likuwona mchitidwe wakusakhulupirira m'magulu andale ndi andale, zomwe zikuwopseza moyo wa munthu. Njira yatsopanoyi ya nihilism yogwira imatenga mayina osiyanasiyana, ndipo ndi yomvetsa chisoni komanso yomvetsa chisoni kuti ena mwa mayinawa amafanana ndi zipembedzo komanso uzimu wodzinenera "(Kun, 2002: 123). Kuyambira pa Seputembala 11, 2001, anthu ambiri akhala akudzifunsa mafunso awa (Kun, 2002:123):
- Kodi ndi chinenero chachipembedzo chotani chimene chingakhale chomveka bwino ndi champhamvu chonchi kukopa munthu kupereka moyo wake kuti awononge ena?
- Kodi mafanizo ameneŵa asonkhezeradi ndi kulinganiza otsatira achipembedzo achichepere kukhala akupha?
- Kodi mafanizo opanda mtendere amenewa angakhalenso osalankhula kapena olimbikitsa?
Ngati mafanizo angathandize kuthetsa kusiyana pakati pa zodziwika ndi zosadziwika, anthu pawokha, othirira ndemanga, komanso atsogoleri andale, ayenera kuzigwiritsa ntchito m'njira yoletsa kusamvana komanso kumvetsetsana. Kulephera kukumbukira kuthekera kwa kutanthauzira molakwika kwa omvera osadziwika, mafanizo achipembedzo angayambitse zotsatira zosayembekezereka. Mafanizo oyambilira omwe anagwiritsidwa ntchito pambuyo pa kuukira kwa New York ndi Washington DC, monga "nkhondo yamtanda," adapangitsa Aluya ambiri kukhala osamasuka. Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa mafanizo opanda mtendere achipembedzo oterowo kulinganiza zochitikazo kunali kovutirapo ndi kosayenera. Mawu oti "crusade" adachokera kuchipembedzo choyambirira chachikhristu ku Europe chochotsa otsatira a Mtumiki Muhammad (SAW) ku Dziko Loyera mu 11th Zaka zana. Mawu awa anali ndi kuthekera kokonzanso zomwe Asilamu amadana nazo kwazaka mazana ambiri chifukwa cha kampeni yawo ku Dziko Loyera. Monga momwe Steven Runciman amanenera kumapeto kwa mbiri yake ya nkhondo zamtanda, nkhondoyi inali "zochitika zomvetsa chisoni ndi zowononga" ndipo "Nkhondo Yopatulikayo sinali kanthu koma kusalolera kwanthawi yayitali m'dzina la Mulungu, komwe kumatsutsana ndi Malo Opatulika. Mzimu.” Mawu akuti crusade adapatsidwa mwayi womangidwa ndi andale komanso anthu pawokha chifukwa chosadziwa mbiri yakale komanso kupititsa patsogolo zolinga zawo zandale (Kun, 2002:124).
Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa mafanizo pazifukwa zoyankhulirana momveka bwino kuli ndi ntchito yofunikira yophatikizira. Amaperekanso mlatho wokhazikika pakati pa zida zosiyanirana zokonzanso ndondomeko za anthu. Koma nthawi imene mafanizo amenewa amagwiritsiridwa ntchito ndiyo yofunika kwambiri kwa omvera. Mafanizo osiyanasiyana amene afotokozedwa m’chigawo chino cha chikhulupiriro, mwa iwo okha, si opanda mtendere mwachibadwa, koma nthawi imene anagwiritsiridwa ntchito anayambitsa mikangano ndi kutanthauzira molakwa. Mafanizowa ndi okhudzidwanso chifukwa adachokera ku mkangano wachikhristu ndi Chisilamu zaka mazana ambiri zapitazo. Kudalira mafanizo otere kuti tithandizire anthu pa mfundo inayake kapena kuchitapo kanthu ndi boma mosayang'ana pachiwopsezo chachikulu ndikusokoneza matanthauzo akale ndi mafanizo (Kun, 2002: 135).
Mafanizo opanda mtendere achipembedzo omwe Purezidenti Bush ndi bin Laden adagwiritsa ntchito pofotokozera zomwe adachita mchaka cha 2001 apangitsa kuti zinthu zikhale zovuta m'maiko aku Western ndi Asilamu. Ndithudi, anthu ambiri a ku America amakhulupirira kuti Bush Administration ikuchita mwachikhulupiriro ndi kufunafuna zabwino za dziko kuti aphwanye "mdani woipa" yemwe akufuna kusokoneza ufulu wa America. Momwemonso Asilamu ambiri m’mayiko osiyanasiyana ankakhulupirira kuti zigawenga zimene bin Laden anachita polimbana ndi dziko la United States zinali zolondola chifukwa dziko la United States limakondera Chisilamu. Funso ndilakuti ngati anthu aku America ndi Asilamu amamvetsetsa bwino za chithunzi chomwe amajambula komanso malingaliro a mbali zonse ziwiri (Kun, 2002: 135).
Mosasamala kanthu, mafotokozedwe ophiphiritsa a zochitika za Seputembara 11, 2001 ndi boma la United States adalimbikitsa omvera aku America kuti atengere mawuwa mozama ndikuthandizira nkhondo yankhanza ku Afghanistan. Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito mosayenera kwa mafanizo achipembedzo kunasonkhezeranso anthu ena oipidwa a ku America kuukira anthu a ku Middle East. Akuluakulu azamalamulo adalemba mbiri ya anthu ochokera kumayiko aku Arabu ndi Eastern Asia. Ena m'mayiko achisilamu anali kuchirikiza zigawenga zambiri zolimbana ndi United States ndi ogwirizana nawo chifukwa cha momwe mawu oti "jihad" amazunzidwira. Pofotokoza zomwe dziko la United States likuchita pobweretsa chilungamo ku Washington, DC ndi New York ngati "nkhondo yankhondo," lingaliroli lidapanga chithunzi chomwe chidapangidwa ndi kugwiritsa ntchito mwaukali fanizoli (Kun, 2002: 136).
Palibe kutsutsana kuti zochita za September 11, 2001 zinali zolakwika mwamakhalidwe ndi mwalamulo, malinga ndi lamulo la Islamic Sharia; komabe, ngati mafanizo osagwiritsiridwa ntchito moyenera, angadzutse zithunzi ndi zikumbukiro zoipa. Zithunzizi zimatengedwa ndi anthu ochita zinthu monyanyira kuti azichita zinthu zachinsinsi. Kuyang'ana matanthauzo akale ndi mawonedwe a mafanizo monga "mtanda" ndi "jihad," wina angazindikire kuti zachotsedwa; ambiri mwa mafanizowa akugwiritsidwa ntchito panthaŵi imene anthu a kumaiko a Kumadzulo ndi Asilamu akukumana ndi chisalungamo. Zowonadi, anthu agwiritsa ntchito zovuta kusokoneza ndi kunyengerera omvera awo kuti apindule nawo pazandale. Pakachitika mavuto adziko atsogoleri aliyense ayenera kukumbukira kuti kugwiritsa ntchito mafanizo achipembedzo mosayenera kuti apindule pazandale kumakhala ndi zotsatirapo zazikulu pagulu (Kun, 2002: 136).
Mafanizo pa Ethnicity
Zokambirana zotsatirazi zachokera pa mutu wa Abdulla Ahmed Al-Khalifa wa mutu wakuti “Ethnic Relations” m’buku lathu, Mafanizo Opanda Mtendere (2002), momwe amatiuza kuti maubwenzi amitundu inakhala nkhani yofunika kwambiri pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yozizira chifukwa mikangano yambiri yamkati, yomwe tsopano imatengedwa kuti ndiyo njira yaikulu ya mikangano yachiwawa padziko lonse lapansi, imachokera ku mafuko. Kodi zinthu zimenezi zingayambitse bwanji mikangano yamkati? (Al-Khalifa, 2002:83).
Ufuko ungayambitse mikangano yamkati mwa njira ziwiri. Choyamba, mitundu yambiri imachita tsankho lachikhalidwe ndi mafuko ang'onoang'ono. Tsankho lachikhalidwe likhoza kukhala mwai wamaphunziro osagwirizana, zoletsa zamalamulo ndi ndale pakugwiritsa ntchito ndi kuphunzitsa zilankhulo zazing'ono, komanso zolepheretsa ufulu wachipembedzo. Nthawi zina, njira zowopsa zotengera anthu ocheperako kuphatikiza mapulogalamu obweretsa mitundu yambiri yamitundu ina m'malo ochepa amakhala mtundu wakupha anthu azikhalidwe (Al-Khalifa, 2002: 83).
Njira yachiwiri ndiyo kugwiritsa ntchito mbiri yamagulu ndi malingaliro amagulu a iwo eni ndi ena. N’zosapeŵeka kuti magulu ambiri ali ndi madandaulo oyenerera kwa ena pamilandu yamtundu wina kapena ina imene inachitidwa panthaŵi ina yakutali kapena yaposachedwapa. “Madano akale” ena ali ndi maziko ovomerezeka a mbiri yakale. Komabe, ndizowonanso kuti magulu amakonda kuyeretsa ndikulemekeza mbiri yawo, kuwononga oyandikana nawo, kapena otsutsana nawo ndi adani (Al-Khalifa, 2002: 83).
Nthano zamitundu iyi zimakhala zovuta makamaka ngati magulu otsutsana ali ndi zithunzi zamagalasi a wina ndi mzake, zomwe zimakhala choncho. Mwachitsanzo, ku mbali ina, Aserbia amadziona ngati “oteteza ngwazi” ku Ulaya ndi Croatia monga “achifwamba, achifwamba.” Koma anthu a ku Croatia amadziona ngati “anthu olimba mtima ozunzidwa” ndi “zaukali” la ku Serbia. Pamene magulu awiri oyandikana ali ndi malingaliro osagwirizana, opsetsana mtima, kuputana pang'ono mbali zonse kumatsimikizira zikhulupiriro zozama ndipo kumapereka zifukwa zobwezera. Pansi pazimenezi, mikangano ndizovuta kupewa komanso zovuta kuziletsa, zitayamba (Al-Khalifa, 2002:83-84).
Choncho mafanizo ambiri opanda mtendere amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi atsogoleri andale pofuna kulimbikitsa mikangano ndi chidani pakati pa mafuko kudzera m’mawu olankhula pagulu ndi pawailesi yakanema. Kuonjezera apo, mafanizowa atha kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'magawo onse a mkangano wa mafuko kuyambira pokonzekera magulu ankhondo mpaka kufika pofika pokonzekera ndale. Komabe, tinganene kuti pali magulu atatu a mafanizo opanda mtendere m'mayanjano amitundu pamikangano kapena mikangano yotere (Al-Khalifa, 2002:84).
Category 1 Kumaphatikizapo kugwiritsa ntchito mawu oipa pofuna kukulitsa ziwawa ndi kunyonyotsoka kwa mikangano ya mafuko. Mawu awa atha kugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi magulu omwe akutsutsana wina ndi mnzake (Al-Khalifa, 2002:84):
Kubwezera: Kubwezerana kwa gulu A pa mkangano kumabweretsa kubwezera kwa gulu B, ndipo kubwezerananso kungapangitse magulu awiriwa kukhala achiwawa komanso kubwezera. Komanso, kubwezera kungakhale chifukwa cha mchitidwe umene mtundu wina wachita motsutsana ndi wina m’mbiri ya ubale wapakati pawo. Mwachitsanzo, ku Kosovo, mu 1989, Slobodan Milosevic analonjeza Aserbia kubwezera Aalbania a Kosovo chifukwa chogonja pankhondo yankhondo ya Turkey zaka 600 m’mbuyomo. Zinali zoonekeratu kuti Milosevic anagwiritsa ntchito fanizo la "kubwezera" kukonzekera Serbs kumenyana ndi Kosovo Albanians (Al-Khalifa, 2002: 84).
Zauchifwamba: Kusakhalapo kwa mgwirizano pa tanthauzo la dziko lonse la "uchigawenga" kumapereka mwayi kwa mafuko omwe akukhudzidwa ndi mikangano ya mafuko kunena kuti adani awo ndi "zigawenga" ndipo zochita zawo zobwezera zimakhala ngati "uchigawenga." Mwachitsanzo, pa mkangano wa ku Middle East, akuluakulu a Israeli amatcha mabomba odzipha a Palestina "zigawenga," pamene Palestina amadziona ngati "Mujahidina” ndi zochita zawo ngati "Jihad" kumenyana ndi magulu ankhondo a Israyeli. Kumbali ina, atsogoleri a ndale ndi achipembedzo a Palestina ankakonda kunena kuti Prime Minister wa Israeli Ariel Sharon anali "chigawenga" komanso kuti asilikali a Israeli ndi "zigawenga" (Al-Khalifa, 2002: 84-85).
Kusatetezeka: Mawu oti "kusatetezeka" kapena "kusowa kwa chitetezo" amagwiritsidwa ntchito mofala pa mikangano ya mafuko ndi mafuko kulungamitsa zolinga zawo zokhazikitsa magulu awo ankhondo panthawi yokonzekera nkhondo. Pa Marichi 7, 2001 Prime Minister waku Israeli Ariel Sharon adatchula mawu akuti "chitetezo" kasanu ndi katatu m'mawu ake otsegulira ku Israel Knesset. Anthu a ku Palestine ankadziwa kuti chinenero ndi mawu omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito m'mawuwa anali ndi cholinga cholimbikitsa anthu (Al-Khalifa, 2002: 85).
Category 2 limakhala ndi mawu omwe ali ndi chikhalidwe chabwino, koma angagwiritsidwe ntchito molakwika polimbikitsa ndi kulungamitsa zaukali (Al-Khalifa, 2002:85).
Malo oyera: Awa si mawu opanda mtendere mwa iwo okha, koma angagwiritsidwe ntchito kukwaniritsa zolinga zowononga, monga, kulungamitsa mchitidwe wankhanza ponena kuti cholinga chake ndi kuteteza malo oyera. Mu 1993, 16th-Msikiti wazaka zana, Babrii Masjid, womwe uli kumpoto kwa mzinda wa Ayodhya ku India, udawonongedwa ndi magulu ankhondo achihindu omwe amafuna kumanga kachisi wa Rama pamalo pomwepa. Chochitika choipitsitsa chimenecho chinatsatiridwa ndi ziwawa ndi zipolowe m’dziko lonselo, m’menemo anthu 2,000 kapena kuposapo—Ahindu ndi Asilamu onse anafa; komabe, ozunzidwa achisilamu adaposa Ahindu (Al-Khalifa, 2002:85).
Kudzilamulira ndi kudziyimira pawokha: Njira yopita ku ufulu ndi ufulu wodzilamulira wa gulu la mafuko ingakhale yamagazi ndi kutaya miyoyo ya anthu ambiri, monga momwe zinalili ku East Timor. Kuchokera ku 1975 mpaka 1999, magulu otsutsa ku East Timor adakweza mawu odziimira okha komanso odziimira okha, zomwe zinawononga miyoyo ya 200,000 East Timorese (Al-Khalifa, 2002: 85).
Kudziteteza: Malinga ndi Article 61 ya Charter ya United Nations, "Palibe chomwe chili mu Charter yapano chomwe chidzasokoneza ufulu wodzitchinjiriza wa munthu payekha kapena gulu ngati chiwembu chikachitika membala wa United Nations…." Chifukwa chake, Charter ya United Nations imateteza ufulu wa mayiko omwe ali mamembala kuti adziteteze ku ziwawa za membala wina. Komabe, ngakhale kuti mawuwa amangogwiritsidwa ntchito ndi mayiko, adagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi Israeli kulungamitsa ntchito zake zankhondo motsutsana ndi madera a Palestina omwe sanazindikiridwe ngati dziko ndi mayiko (Al-Khalifa, 2002:85- 86).
Category 3 limapangidwa ndi mawu omwe amafotokoza zotsatira zowononga za mikangano yamitundu monga kupha anthu, kuyeretsa fuko ndi ziwawa zaudani (Al-Khalifa, 2002:86).
Kupha anthu ambiri: Bungwe la United Nations limalongosola mawuwa kukhala mchitidwe wopha, kumenya koopsa, njala, ndi njira zochitira ana “odzipereka ndi cholinga chowononga, lonse kapena mbali ina, fuko, fuko, fuko kapena chipembedzo.” Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito koyamba kwa United Nations kunali pamene Mlembi Wamkulu wake adalengeza ku Security Council kuti ziwawa ku Rwanda zotsutsana ndi anthu ochepa a Tutsi ndi Ahutu ambiri zimaganiziridwa kuti ndizopha anthu pa October 1, 1994 (Al-Khalifa, 2002:86). .
Kuyeretsa mafuko: Kuyeretsa fuko kumatanthauzidwa ngati kuyesa kuyeretsa kapena kuyeretsa dera la fuko limodzi pogwiritsa ntchito zigawenga, kugwirira chigololo, ndi kupha anthu pofuna kukopa anthu kuti achoke. Mawu akuti “kuyeretsa fuko” anayamba kugwiritsidwa ntchito padziko lonse mu 1992 ndi nkhondo yomwe kale inali Yugoslavia. Komabe amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri mu General Assembly ndi Security Council resolutions ndi zolemba za ma rapporteurs apadera (Al-Khalifa, 2002:86). Zaka XNUMX zapitazo, dziko la Greece ndi Turkey linanena monyadira kuti “kusinthana kwa anthu” kupha anthu.
Zolakwa zachidani (zokondera): Milandu yachidani kapena kukondera ndi makhalidwe omwe boma limawafotokozera kuti ndi losaloledwa ndipo liyenera kupatsidwa chilango, ngati limayambitsa kapena kutanthauza kuvulaza munthu kapena gulu chifukwa cha kusiyana komwe kulingaliridwa. Milandu yachidani yomwe idapitirizidwa ndi Ahindu motsutsana ndi Asilamu ku India ikhoza kukhala chitsanzo chabwino (Al-Khalifa, 2002: 86).
Tikayang'ana m'mbuyo, kugwirizana pakati pa kuwonjezereka kwa mikangano yamitundu ndi kugwiritsira ntchito mafanizo opanda mtendere kungagwiritsidwe ntchito poyesa kuletsa ndi kupewa mikangano. Chifukwa chake, anthu apadziko lonse lapansi angapindule poyang'anira kugwiritsa ntchito mafanizo opanda mtendere pakati pa mafuko osiyanasiyana kuti adziwe nthawi yeniyeni yoti alowererepo pofuna kupewa kuphulika kwa mikangano yamitundu. Mwachitsanzo, pa nkhani ya Kosovo, anthu amitundu yonse akanayembekezera kuti Pulezidenti Milosevic adzachita zachiwawa kwa anthu a ku Kosovar ku 1998 kuchokera ku mawu ake omwe anaperekedwa mu 1989. mikangano isanayambike ndikupewa zotsatira zowononga ndi zowononga (Al-Khalifa, 2002:99).
Lingaliro limeneli lazikidwa pa malingaliro atatu. Choyamba n’chakuti anthu a m’mayiko osiyanasiyana amachita zinthu mogwirizana, zomwe sizili choncho nthawi zonse. Kuwonetsa, ku Kosovo, ngakhale kuti bungwe la UN likufuna kulowererapo zisanachitike kuphulika kwa ziwawa, zidalepheretsedwa ndi Russia. Chachiwiri ndi chakuti mayiko akuluakulu ali ndi chidwi cholowerera mikangano yamitundu; izi zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito nthawi zina. Mwachitsanzo, m’nkhani ya Rwanda, kusowa chidwi kwa mayiko akuluakulu kunachititsa kuti mayiko a mayiko achedwetse kuloŵerera m’nkhondoyo. Chachitatu n’chakuti mayiko nthaŵi zonse amafuna kuletsa kuwonjezereka kwa mikangano. Komabe, chodabwitsa, nthawi zina, kuchuluka kwa ziwawa kumapangitsa kuti munthu wina ayesetse kuthetsa mkanganowo (Al-Khalifa, 2002:100).
Kutsiliza
Kuchokera m’makambitsirano apitawa, n’zachidziŵikire kuti nkhani zathu zachikhulupiriro ndi fuko zimawoneka ngati malo osokonekera komanso omenyana. Ndipo kuyambira chiyambi cha ubale wapadziko lonse lapansi, mizere yankhondo yakhala ikuchulukirachulukira m'mikangano yomwe tili nayo masiku ano. Zowonadi, mikangano yokhudzana ndi chikhulupiriro ndi fuko idagawikana ndi zomwe amakonda komanso zomwe amakhulupirira. Mkati mwa zotengera zathu, zilakolako zimatupa, kupangitsa mitu kugunda, kusawona bwino, ndi kulingalira kusokonezeka. Pokhala paudani, malingaliro apangana chiwembu, malirime adula, ndipo manja apunduka chifukwa cha mfundo ndi madandaulo.
Demokalase ikuyenera kulimbikitsa mikangano ndi mikangano, monga momwe injini yoyendetsera bwino imagwirira ntchito kuphulika kwamphamvu. Mwachiwonekere, pali mikangano yambiri ndi kutsutsa kozungulira. Ndipotu madandaulo omwe anthu osakhala a Kumadzulo, Azungu, akazi, amuna, olemera ndi osauka, ngakhale akale komanso ena osatsimikizika, amatanthauzira maubwenzi athu kwa wina ndi mzake. Kodi "Africa" ndi chiyani popanda zaka mazana ambiri za ku Ulaya ndi America kuponderezedwa, kuponderezedwa, kupsinjika maganizo, ndi kuponderezedwa? Kodi "osauka" ndi chiyani popanda mphwayi, chipongwe ndi kudzikweza kwa olemera? Gulu lirilonse liri ndi udindo wake ndi chikhalidwe chake chifukwa cha kusayanjanitsika ndi zokondweretsa za mdani wake.
Dongosolo lazachuma padziko lonse lapansi limathandizira kwambiri kukulitsa chidwi chathu chaudani ndi mpikisano kukhala mabiliyoni ambiri achuma chadziko. Koma kupambana kwachuma ngakhale, zotuluka mu injini yathu yazachuma ndizosokoneza komanso zowopsa kuti sizinganyalanyaze. Dongosolo lathu lazachuma likuwoneka kuti likumeza zotsutsana zazikuluzikulu za chikhalidwe monga Karl Marx anganene kuti kutsutsana kwamagulu ndi kukhala ndi chuma chakuthupi cha omwe akufuna. Chomwe chimayambitsa vuto lathu ndi chakuti malingaliro osokonekera a mayanjano omwe timakhala nawo kwa wina ndi mnzake amakhala ndi zofuna zathu zokha. Maziko a gulu lathu la chikhalidwe cha anthu ndi chitukuko chathu chachikulu ndi kudzikonda, kumene njira zomwe aliyense wa ife ali nazo sizokwanira pa ntchito yopezera zofuna zathu. Kuti titsimikizire mgwirizano wa anthu, lingaliro lomwe liyenera kutengedwa kuchokera ku chowonadi ichi ndikuti tonsefe tiyenera kuyesetsa kufunikirana wina ndi mnzake. Koma ambiri aife timakonda kupeputsa kudalirana kwathu pa luso la wina ndi mzake, mphamvu, ndi luso la wina ndi mzake, ndipo m'malo mwake tisonkhezere kusinthasintha kwa malingaliro athu osiyanasiyana.
Mbiri yasonyeza mobwerezabwereza kuti sitingalole kulola kudalirana kwa anthu kusokoneza kusiyana kwathu ndi kutigwirizanitsa monga banja laumunthu. M’malo movomereza kuti timadalirana, ena a ife tasankha kuumiriza ena kugonjera mopanda kuthokoza. Kalekale, akapolo a mu Afirika anagwira ntchito molimbika kufesa ndi kututa chuma cha dziko lapansi kaamba ka olamulira akapolo a ku Ulaya ndi ku America. Kuchokera ku zosowa ndi zofuna za eni akapolo, mothandizidwa ndi malamulo okakamiza, zotsutsana, zikhulupiriro, ndi chipembedzo, dongosolo la chikhalidwe cha anthu linasintha kuchokera ku chitsutso ndi kuponderezana osati chifukwa cha lingaliro lakuti anthu amafunikirana wina ndi mzake.
Ndizodabwitsa kuti pakati pathu pabuka phompho lalikulu, loyambitsidwa ndi kulephera kwathu kulimbana wina ndi mnzake monga zidutswa zofunika kwambiri za organic. Kuyenda pakati pa mapiri a phompho ili ndi mtsinje wa madandaulo. Mwina osati zamphamvu mwachibadwa, koma kunjenjemera koopsa kwa malankhulidwe amoto ndi kukana mwankhanza kwasintha madandaulo athu kukhala mafunde othamanga. Tsopano mphepo yamphamvu imatikokera kukankha ndi kukuwa kuti tigwe kwambiri.
Polephera kuwunika kulephera kwathu pazikhalidwe ndi malingaliro athu, omasuka, osunga malamulo, ndi ochita monyanyira amtundu uliwonse wakakamiza ngakhale amtendere komanso opanda chidwi mwa ife kutenga mbali. Chifukwa chokhumudwa ndi kuchuluka kwa nkhondo zomwe zikuphulika paliponse, ngakhale zomveka bwino komanso zolembedwa pakati pathu zimapeza kuti palibe chifukwa chokhalira ndale. Ngakhale atsogoleri pakati pathu ayenera kutengapo mbali, chifukwa nzika iliyonse imaumirizidwa ndi kulembedwa usilikali kuti achite nawo nkhondoyo.
Zothandizira
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Bangura, Abdul Karim. 2011a. Kiyibodi Jihad: Kuyesera Kuthetsa Maganizo Olakwika ndi Mabodza a Chisilamu. San Diego, CA: Cognella Press.
Bangura, Abdul Karim. 2007. Kumvetsetsa ndi kulimbana ndi ziphuphu ku Sierra Leone: Njira yophiphiritsira ya zinenero. Journal of Third World Studies 24, 1: 59-72.
Bangura, Abdul Karim (ed.). 2005a. Ma Paradigm amtendere achisilamu. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Bangura, Abdul Karim (ed.). 2005a. Chiyambi cha Chisilamu: Maonedwe a chikhalidwe cha anthu. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Bangura, Abdul Karim (ed.). 2004. Magwero a Mtendere wa Chisilamu. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Bangura, Abdul Karim. 2003. Qur'an yopatulika ndi nkhani zamasiku ano. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse.
Bangura, Abdul Karim, ed. 2002. Mafanizo Opanda Mtendere. Lincoln, NE: Writers Club Press.
Bangura, Abdul Karim and Alanoud Al-Nouh. 2011. Chitukuko cha Chisilamu, Amity, Equanimity ndi bata.. San Diego, CA: Cognella.
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Za Author
Abdul Karim Bangura ndi wofufuza yemwe amakhala wa Abrahamic Connections ndi Islamic Peace Studies ku Center for Global Peace in the School of International Service ku American University ndi director of The African Institution, onse ku Washington DC; wowerenga kunja kwa Research Methodology ku Plekhanov Russian University ku Moscow; pulofesa woyambitsa mtendere wa International Summer School in Peace and Conflict Studies ku yunivesite ya Peshawar ku Pakistan; komanso mkulu wapadziko lonse komanso mlangizi wa Centro Cultural Guanin ku Santo Domingo Este, Dominican Republic. Ali ndi ma PhD asanu mu Political Science, Development Economics, Linguistics, Computer Science, ndi Masamu. Ndi mlembi wa mabuku 86 komanso zolemba zamaphunziro zopitilira 600. Wopambana pa mphoto zoposa 50 zapamwamba za maphunziro ndi ntchito za anthu, pakati pa mphoto zaposachedwa kwambiri za Bangura ndi Cecil B. Curry Book Award chifukwa cha iye Masamu aku Africa: Kuchokera Mafupa kupita Pakompyuta, yomwe yasankhidwanso ndi African American Success Foundation's Book Committee monga limodzi mwa mabuku 21 ofunika kwambiri omwe analembedwapo ndi African American mu Science, Technology, Engineering ndi Mathematics (STEM); The Diopian Institute for Scholarly Advancement's Miriam Ma'at Ka Re Award chifukwa cha nkhani yake yotchedwa "Domesticating Mathematics in the African Mother Tongue" yofalitsidwa mu Journal of Pan-African Studies; Mphotho Yapadera ya United States Congression for "ntchito zabwino kwambiri komanso zofunika kwambiri kwa mayiko;" Bungwe la International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation’s Award chifukwa cha ntchito yake yaukatswiri yothetsa kusamvana pakati pa mafuko ndi zipembedzo ndi kukhazikitsa mtendere, komanso kulimbikitsa mtendere ndi kuthetsa mikangano m’madera osamvana; Dipatimenti ya Boma la Moscow ya Multicultural Policy ndi Integrational Cooperation Award chifukwa cha sayansi ndi zochitika za ntchito yake pa ubale wamtendere pakati pa anthu ndi zipembedzo; ndi The Ronald E. McNair Shirt kwa katswiri wofufuza njira yemwe waphunzitsa akatswiri ambiri ofufuza pamaphunziro onse ofalitsidwa m'magazini ndi mabuku osankhidwa mwaukatswiri ndipo adapambana mphoto zamapepala zabwino kwambiri zaka ziwiri zotsatizana-2015 ndi 2016. Bangura amadziŵa bwino zinenero pafupifupi XNUMX za mu Afirika ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi za ku Ulaya, ndipo amaphunzira kuti awonjezere luso lake la Chiarabu, Chihebri, ndi Hieroglyphics. Iyenso ndi membala wa mabungwe ambiri amaphunziro, adakhalapo Purezidenti komanso kazembe wa United Nations wa Association of Third World Studies, ndipo ndi nthumwi yapadera ya African Union Peace and Security Council.
