Ubale Pakati pa Mikangano ya Ethno-Religious and Economic Growth: Analysis of the Scholarly Literature
Mfundo:
Kafukufukuyu amafotokoza za kusanthula kwa kafukufuku wamaphunziro omwe amayang'ana kwambiri ubale pakati pa mikangano yachipembedzo ndi kukula kwachuma. Pepalali limadziwitsa anthu ochita nawo msonkhano, aphunzitsi, atsogoleri amalonda, ndi anthu ammudzi za zolemba zamaphunziro ndi kafukufuku zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito poyesa mgwirizano pakati pa mikangano yachipembedzo ndi kukula kwachuma. Njira yomwe idagwiritsidwa ntchito mu kafukufukuyu inali kuwunika kwa nkhani za m'magazini a akatswiri, zowunikiridwa ndi anzawo zomwe zimayang'ana pa mikangano yachipembedzo komanso kukula kwachuma. Zolemba zofufuzira zidasankhidwa kuchokera mgulu la akatswiri, pa intaneti komanso zolemba zonse zomwe zimafunikira kuwunikiranso anzawo. Nkhani iliyonse inayesedwa malinga ndi deta ndi / kapena zosinthika zomwe zimaphatikizapo mikangano, zotsatira zachuma, njira yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito pofufuza mgwirizano pakati pa mikangano yachipembedzo ndi chuma, ndi chitsanzo cha chiphunzitso. Popeza kukula kwachuma kuli kofunika kwambiri pakukonzekera zachuma ndi chitukuko cha ndondomeko, kusanthula kwa zolemba zamaphunziro ndizogwirizana ndi izi. Mikangano ndi ndalama zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pamikanganoyi zimakhudza kukula kwachuma m'mayiko omwe akutukuka kumene, ndipo amaphunziridwa m'mayiko ndi zochitika zosiyanasiyana, kuphatikizapo anthu othawa kwawo aku China, China-Pakistan, Pakistan, India ndi Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Israel, Osh mikangano, NATO, kusamuka, mafuko ndi nkhondo zapachiweniweni, nkhondo ndi msika wogulitsa. Pepalali likupereka mawonekedwe owunikira nkhani za m'magazini akatswiri okhudzana ndi mgwirizano pakati pa mikangano yachipembedzo ndi kukula kwachuma zokhudzana ndi momwe ubalewo ukuyendera. Kuonjezera apo, imapereka chitsanzo chowunika kugwirizana kwa mikangano yachipembedzo kapena chiwawa ndi kukula kwachuma. Magawo anayi akuwunikira maiko ena pazolinga za kafukufukuyu.
Tsitsani Nkhaniyi
Kuchokera Kufotokozera:
Kominkiewicz, FB (2022). Ubale pakati pa mikangano yachipembedzo ndi kukula kwachuma: kusanthula kwa zolemba zamaphunziro. Journal of Living Together, 7(1), 38-57.
Zambiri Zankhani:
@Nkhani{Kominkiewicz2022}
Mutu = {Ubale Pakati pa Mikangano ya Ethno-Religious and Economic Economic: Analysis of the Scholarly Literature}
Wolemba = {Frances Bernard Kominkiewicz}
Url = {https://icermediation.org/relationship-between-ethno-religious-conflict-and-economic-growth-analysis-of-the-scholarly-literature/}
ISSN = {2373-6615 (Sindikizani); 2373-6631 (Pa intaneti)}
Chaka = {2022}
Tsiku = {2022-12-18}
Journal = {Journal of Living Together}
Mphamvu = {7}
Nambala = {1}
Masamba = {38-57}
Wosindikiza = {International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation}
Adilesi = {White Plains, New York}
Kusindikiza = {2022}.
Introduction
Kufunika kophunzira ubale pakati pa mikangano yachipembedzo ndi kukula kwachuma sikungatsutsidwe. Kukhala ndi chidziwitso ichi ndikofunikira pogwira ntchito ndi anthu kuti akhudze kukhazikitsa mtendere. Mikangano ikuwoneka ngati "mphamvu yopangira chuma padziko lonse lapansi" (Ghadar, 2006, p. 15). Mikangano yamitundu kapena yachipembedzo imawonedwa ngati mikangano yapakati pa mayiko omwe akutukuka kumene koma ndizovuta kwambiri kuti sizingaganizidwe ngati mikangano yachipembedzo kapena mafuko (Kim, 2009). Zotsatira za kukula kwachuma ndizofunikira kuunika kupita patsogolo ndi kukhazikitsa mtendere. Zotsatira za kusamvana pa chuma chakuthupi ndi kupanga, ndi mtengo wachuma wa nkhondo yeniyeni, ukhoza kukhala cholinga choyamba chotsatiridwa ndi kusintha kulikonse kwachuma komwe kumachitika chifukwa cha mikangano yomwe ingakhudze zotsatira zachuma za kusamvana pa chitukuko cha dziko ( Schein, 2017). Kuwunika kwazinthu izi ndikofunikira kwambiri pakuzindikira momwe chuma chidzakhudzire kusiyana ndi dziko litapambana kapena litataya mkangano (Schein, 2017). Sizolondola nthawi zonse kuti kupambana mkangano kungapangitse kusintha kwabwino pazachuma, ndi kutaya mkangano kumabweretsa zotsatira zoyipa pazachuma (Schein, 2017). Mkangano ukhoza kupambanidwa, koma ngati mkanganowo udayambitsa zovuta pazachuma, chuma chikhoza kuwonongeka (Schein, 2017). Kutaya mkangano kungayambitse kusintha kwachuma, choncho chitukuko cha dziko chimathandizidwa ndi mikangano (Schein, 2017).
Magulu ambiri omwe amadziona ngati anthu achikhalidwe chofanana, kaya akhale achipembedzo kapena mafuko, atha kutenga nawo mbali pamikangano kuti apitilize kudzilamulira (Stewart, 2002). Zotsatira zachuma zikuwonekera m'mawu akuti mikangano ndi nkhondo zimakhudza kugawa kwa anthu (Warsame & Wilhelmsson, 2019). Vuto lalikulu la othawa kwawo m'maiko omwe ali ndi chuma chosweka mosavuta monga Tunisia, Jordan, Lebanon, ndi Djibouti adayambitsidwa ndi nkhondo yapachiweniweni ku Iraq, Libya, Yemen, ndi Syria (Karam & Zaki, 2016).
Njira
Pofuna kuwunika zotsatira za kusamvana kwachipembedzo pakukula kwachuma, kusanthula kwa zolemba zakale zamaphunziro kunayambika komwe kunayang'ana mawu awa. Zolemba zidapezeka zomwe zidafotokoza zaugawenga, nkhondo zachigawenga, ndi mikangano m'maiko ena okhudzana ndi mikangano yamitundu ndi zipembedzo, ndipo ndi nkhani za m'magazini owunikiridwa ndi akatswiri okhawo omwe amalankhula za ubale wamitundu ndi / kapena mikangano yachipembedzo ndi kukula kwachuma ndi zomwe zidachitika. zikuphatikizidwa mu kafukufuku wa mabuku ofufuza.
Kuwerenga zotsatira zachuma za zinthu zachipembedzo za ethno-chipembedzo kungakhale ntchito yaikulu chifukwa pali mabuku ambiri okhudza nkhaniyi. Kuwunikanso kuchuluka kwa kafukufuku pamutu kumakhala kovuta kwa ofufuza omwe amaphunzira zolemba (Bellefontaine & Lee, 2014; Glass, 1977; Light & Smith, 1971). Choncho kusanthula kumeneku kunapangidwa kuti kuthetsere funso la kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi mikangano ya mafuko ndi / kapena chipembedzo ndi kukula kwachuma kudzera muzosiyana zodziwika. Kafukufuku yemwe adawunikidwa adaphatikiza njira zosiyanasiyana, kuphatikiza njira zamakhalidwe abwino, zochulukira, komanso zosakanikirana (zabwino komanso kuchuluka kwake).
Kugwiritsa Ntchito Ma Database Ofufuza Paintaneti
Zosakatula zapaintaneti zomwe zimapezeka mulaibulale yamaphunziro ya wolemba zidagwiritsidwa ntchito pofufuza kuti apeze zolemba zankhani zaukatswiri, zowunikiridwa ndi anzawo. Pofufuza mabuku, adagwiritsa ntchito malire a "Scholarly (Reviewed Peer-Reviews)". Chifukwa cha mikangano ya zipembedzo zosiyanasiyana komanso kukula kwachuma, zambiri komanso zosiyanasiyana zidafufuzidwa. Zosungidwa zapaintaneti zomwe zidafufuzidwa zidaphatikizidwa, koma sizinali, izi:
- Kusaka Kwamaphunziro Kwambiri
- America: Mbiri ndi Moyo wokhala ndi Mawu Athunthu
- American Antiquarian Society (AAS) Historical Periodicals Collection: Series 1
- American Antiquarian Society (AAS) Historical Periodicals Collection: Series 2
- American Antiquarian Society (AAS) Historical Periodicals Collection: Series 3
- American Antiquarian Society (AAS) Historical Periodicals Collection: Series 4
- American Antiquarian Society (AAS) Historical Periodicals Collection: Series 5
- Zithunzi za Art (HW Wilson)
- Atla Religion Database with AtlaSerials
- Biography Reference Bank (HW Wilson)
- Biography Reference Center
- Biological Abstracts
- Biomedical Reference Collection: Zoyambira
- Bizinesi Yathunthu
- CINAHL yokhala ndi Mawu Athunthu
- Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials
- Mayankho achipatala a Cochrane
- Dongosolo la Cochrane la Zosintha Zogwirizana
- Cochrane Methodology Register
- Communication & Mass Media Complete
- EBSCO Management Collection
- Gwero la Maphunziro a Zamalonda
- ERIC
- Essay and General Literature Index (HW Wilson)
- Filimu & Televizioni Literature Index yokhala ndi Mawu Athunthu
- Fonte Acadêmica
- Fuente Academica Premier
- Gender Studies Database
- GreenFILE
- Health Business FullTEXT
- Gwero la Zaumoyo - Edition ya Consumer
- Gwero la Zaumoyo: Nursing/Academic Edition
- History Reference Center
- Humanities Full Text (HW Wilson)
- Bibliography yapadziko lonse ya Theatre & Dance yokhala ndi Mawu Athunthu
- Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts
- Literary Reference Center Plus
- MagillOnLiterature Plus
- MAS Ultra - Edition ya Sukulu
- MasterFILE Premier
- MEDLINE yokhala ndi Mawu Athunthu
- Middle Search Plus
- Gulu Lankhondo & Boma
- MLA Directory of Periodicals
- MLA International Bibliography
- Mlozera wa Philosopher
- Kusaka Kwambiri
- Kusonkhanitsa kwa Professional Development
- PsychARTICLES
- PsychINFO
- Buku la Owerenga Full Text Select (HW Wilson)
- Reference Latina
- Nkhani Zamalonda Zachigawo
- Small Business Reference Center
- Social Sciences Full Text (HW Wilson)
- Zolemba za Social Work
- SocINDEX yokhala ndi Mawu Athunthu
- ZOFUNIKIRA
- Vente ndi Gestion
Tanthauzo la Zosintha
Zotsatira zachuma za nkhondo ya ethno-religious zimafuna matanthauzo amitundu yomwe ikufotokozedwa muzolemba za kafukufukuyu. Monga Ghadar (2006) akufotokozera, "Tanthauzo la mikangano palokha likusintha pamene zochitika za mikangano yapadziko lonse lapansi zikupitirira kuchepa pamene zochitika za nkhondo zapachiweniweni ndi uchigawenga zikuwonjezeka" (p. 15). Mawu ofufuzira amatanthauzidwa ndi zosinthika, choncho tanthawuzo la mawu osaka ndilofunika pakuwunikanso mabuku. Powunikiranso zolembazo, tanthauzo lofanana la "kusamvana kwachipembedzo" ndi "kukula kwachuma" sikunapezeke. pa se ndi mawu enieniwo, koma anagwiritsa ntchito mawu osiyanasiyana amene angatanthauze tanthauzo lofanana kapena lofanana. Mawu ofufuzira omwe adagwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka pofufuza zolembedwa anali "fuko", "ethno", "chipembedzo", "chipembedzo", "zachuma", "chuma", ndi "mikangano". Izi zidaphatikizidwa m'zilolezo zosiyanasiyana ndi mawu ena osakira monga mawu osakira a Boolean muzosunga.
Malinga ndi Oxford English Dictionary Online, "ethno-" amatanthauzidwa kuti ndi awa omwe ali ndi "zachikale", "zachikale", ndi "zosowa" magulu omwe amachotsedwa kuti afufuze kafukufukuyu: "Ogwiritsidwa ntchito m'mawu okhudzana ndi kafukufuku wa anthu kapena zikhalidwe. , omasuliridwa ku (a) kuphatikiza mitundu (monga ethnography n., ethnology n., etc.), ndi (b) maina (monga ethnobotany n., ethnopsychology n., etc.), kapena zotuluka za izi” ( Oxford English Dictionary , 2019e). “Fuko” limatanthauzidwa m’malongosoledwe amenewa, ndikuchotsanso magulu osagwiritsiridwa ntchito mwachizoloŵezi, “monga dzina: poyambirira ndiponso makamaka. Mbiri Yakale Yachi Greek. Mawu otanthauza dziko kapena malo kumene anachokera”; ndi “poyamba US Membala wa gulu kapena kagulu kakang'ono kamene kamatengedwa kuti ndi wobadwa wamba, kapena kukhala ndi chikhalidwe chofanana cha dziko kapena chikhalidwe; esp. wa fuko laling’ono.” Monga adjective, "fuko" limatanthauzidwa kuti "poyamba Mbiri Yakale Yachi Greek. Mawu akuti: amene amatanthauza dziko kapena kumene anachokera”; ndi "Poyambirira: za kapena zokhudzana ndi anthu zamtundu wawo (weniweni kapena wodziwika) wamba. Tsopano kawirikawiri: za kapena zokhudzana ndi chiyambi cha dziko kapena chikhalidwe kapena chikhalidwe"; "Kupanga kapena kukhudzana ndi ubale pakati pa magulu osiyanasiyana a anthu a dziko kapena dera, esp. pamene pali udani kapena mkangano; zomwe zimachitika kapena zomwe zilipo pakati pa magulu otere, amitundu yosiyanasiyana”; “Pagulu la anthu: otengedwa kukhala ndi makolo amodzi, kapena chikhalidwe chofanana cha dziko kapena chikhalidwe”; “Kulemba kapena kugwirizana ndi zaluso, nyimbo, kavalidwe, kapena zinthu zina za chikhalidwe cha gulu linalake (makamaka osati la Azungu) la mtundu kapena chikhalidwe; kutengera kapena kuphatikiza zinthu izi. Chifukwa chake: (colloquial) yachilendo, yachilendo”; Kusankha kapena kukhudzana ndi gulu laling'ono la anthu (m'gulu lalikulu la dziko kapena chikhalidwe) lomwe limawoneka ngati lobadwa kapena chikhalidwe chamtundu umodzi kapena chikhalidwe. Ku United States nthawi zina mwatsatanetsatane. kusankha mamembala amagulu ochepa omwe si akuda. Tsopano nthawi zambiri amaganiziridwa zokhumudwitsa”; "Kusankha kochokera kapena kudziwika kwadziko kubadwa kapena kubadwa m'malo motengera mtundu wapano" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019d).
Kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi momwe kusinthika, "chipembedzo", kumakhudzira mikangano yachiwawa kumakayikitsa pazifukwa zinayi (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Nkhani yoyamba ndi yakuti pali zovuta posankha pakati pa ziphunzitso zomwe zimayesa kufotokoza mikangano yachiwawa (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). M'magazini yachiwiri, zovuta zimachokera ku malire osiyanasiyana okhudzana ndi chiwawa ndi mikangano (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Mpaka zaka za m'ma 1990, nkhondo ndi ziwawa zapadziko lonse lapansi zinali makamaka pankhani ya ubale wapadziko lonse ndi chitetezo ndi maphunziro apamwamba ngakhale mikangano yachiwawa yapakati pa mayiko inakula kwambiri pambuyo pa 1960s (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Nkhani yachitatu ikukhudzana ndi kusintha kwa machitidwe okhudzana ndi nkhanza zapadziko lonse lapansi komanso kusintha kwa mikangano yamakono (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Nkhani yomaliza imanena za kufunika kosiyanitsira mitundu yoyambitsa chifukwa nkhondo yankhanza imakhala ndi mbali zambiri zolumikizana, ikusintha, ndipo imachokera kuzinthu zambiri (Cederman & Gleditsch, 2009; Dixon, 2009; Duyvesteyn, 2000; Feliu & Grasa, 2013; Themnér & Wallensteen, 2012).
Liwu lakuti “chipembedzo” limatanthauzidwa kukhala chiganizo m’mawu ameneŵa ndi magulu osagwiritsiridwa ntchito mwachizoloŵezi chochotsedwa: “Cha munthu kapena gulu la anthu: omangidwa ndi malumbiro achipembedzo; a m'gulu la amonke, esp. mu Tchalitchi cha Roma Katolika”; “Za chinthu, malo, ndi zina zotero: kukhala kapena kulumikizidwa ndi dongosolo la amonke; amonke”; “Mkulu wa munthu: wodzipereka ku chipembedzo; kusonyeza zotsatira zauzimu kapena zochitika za chipembedzo, kutsatira zofunikira za chipembedzo; opembedza, opembedza, opembedza”; "Za, zokhudzana ndi, kapena zokhudzana ndi chipembedzo" ndi "Woyera, wowona, wokhwima, wotsatira chikumbumtima. Potanthawuza “chipembedzo” monga nauni, magulu ogwiritsiridwa ntchito mofala otsatirawa akuphatikizidwa: “Anthu omangidwa ndi malumbiro a amonke kapena odzipereka ku moyo wachipembedzo, esp. m’Tchalitchi cha Roma Katolika” ndi “Munthu womangidwa ndi malumbiro achipembedzo kapena wodzipereka ku moyo wachipembedzo, mwachitsanzo. mu Roman Catholic Church” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019g).
“Chipembedzo” chimalongosoledwa, ndi magulu ogwiritsiridwa ntchito wamba akuphatikizidwa, monga “Mkhalidwe wa moyo womangidwa ndi malumbiro achipembedzo; mkhalidwe wakukhala m’gulu lachipembedzo; “Zochita kapena khalidwe losonyeza chikhulupiriro, kumvera, ndi kulemekeza mulungu, milungu, kapena mphamvu zoposa zaumunthu zofananazo; kachitidwe ka miyambo yachipembedzo kapena zikondwerero” zikaphatikizidwa ndi “Kukhulupirira kapena kuvomereza mphamvu kapena mphamvu zina zoposa zaumunthu (makamaka mulungu kapena milungu) zimene zimasonyezedwa m’kumvera, kulemekeza, ndi kulambira; Chikhulupiriro chotere monga gawo la dongosolo lofotokozera za moyo, esp. monga njira yopezera chiwongolero chauzimu kapena chakuthupi”; ndi "Njira inayake yachikhulupiriro ndi kupembedza" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019f). Tanthauzo lomalizali linagwiritsidwa ntchito pofufuza m'mabuku.
Mawu osaka, "economy" ndi "economic" adagwiritsidwa ntchito pofufuza nkhokwe. Mawu akuti, "chuma", amasunga matanthauzo khumi ndi limodzi (11) mu Oxford English Dictionary (2019c). Tanthauzo loyenera la kugwiritsa ntchito kusanthula uku ndi motere: "Gulu kapena chikhalidwe cha anthu kapena dziko pokhudzana ndi zachuma, esp. kupanga ndi kugwiritsira ntchito katundu ndi ntchito ndi kupereka ndalama (tsopano kawirikawiri ndi ndi); (komanso) dongosolo linalake lazachuma” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019). Ponena za mawu akuti, "zachuma", tanthauzo lotsatirali linagwiritsidwa ntchito pofufuza zolemba zoyenera: "Za, zokhudzana, kapena zokhudzana ndi sayansi yazachuma kapena chuma chonse" komanso "zokhudzana ndi chitukuko ndi kuwongolera chuma chamtundu kapena dziko" (English Oxford Dictionary, 2019b).
Mawu akuti, "kusintha kwachuma", kutanthauza kusintha kwakung'ono muzachuma, ndi "kusintha kwachuma", kutanthauza kusintha kwakukulu kwamtundu uliwonse / mtundu uliwonse ku chuma chosiyana kotheratu, adawonedwanso ngati mawu osakira mu kafukufukuyu (Cottey, 2018, p. 215). Pogwiritsa ntchito mawuwa, zopereka zimaphatikizidwa zomwe nthawi zambiri sizimayikidwa pazachuma (Cottey, 2018).
Zomwe zimaganiziridwa mu kafukufukuyu pogwiritsa ntchito mawu osaka zinali ndalama zachindunji ndi zosalunjika za mkangano. Ndalama zachindunji ndi ndalama zomwe zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito nthawi yomweyo pankhondoyi ndipo zimaphatikizapo kuvulaza anthu, chisamaliro ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa anthu othawa kwawo, kuwononga ndi kuwonongeka kwa zinthu zakuthupi, komanso ndalama zokwera zankhondo ndi chitetezo chamkati (Mutlu, 2011). Ndalama zosalunjika zimatanthawuza zotsatira za mkanganowu monga kutayika kwa chuma cha anthu chifukwa cha imfa kapena kuvulala, kutaya ndalama chifukwa cha ndalama zomwe zatayika, kuthawa kwakukulu, kusamuka kwa anthu ogwira ntchito zaluso, ndi kutayika kwa ndalama zakunja zomwe zingatheke komanso ndalama zokopa alendo (Mutlu, 2011 ). Anthu omwe akukhudzidwa ndi mkangano amathanso kutayika chifukwa cha kupsinjika maganizo ndi kupwetekedwa mtima komanso kusokonezeka kwa maphunziro (Mutlu, 2011). Izi zikuwonedwa mu kafukufuku wa Hamber and Gallagher (2014) yemwe adapeza kuti anyamata achichepere ku Northern Ireland adabwera ndi zovuta zokhudzana ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu komanso malingaliro, komanso kuti chiwerengerochi chikuwonetsa kudzivulaza, kukumana ndi malingaliro odzipha, kuchita nawo ngozi kapena kuyesa kudzipha. zinali "zowopsa" (tsamba 52). Malinga ndi omwe adachita nawo maphunzirowa, machitidwe omwe adanenedwawa adabwera chifukwa cha "kupsinjika, kupsinjika, nkhawa, chizolowezi, kudziona ngati achabechabe, kudziona kuti ndife opanda pake, kusowa chiyembekezo cha moyo, kudzimva wonyalanyazidwa, kusowa chiyembekezo, kukhumudwa, kuwopseza komanso kuopa kuukiridwa ndi magulu ankhondo" (Hamber & Gallagher , 2014, tsamba 52).
"Kukangana" kumatanthauzidwa ngati "kulimbana ndi matenda; ndewu, nkhondo”; “kulimbana kwa nthaŵi yaitali”; ndewu, kulimbana ndi zida, ndewu”; “kulimbana kwamaganizo kapena kwauzimu mkati mwa munthu”; "kusagwirizana kapena kusiyana kwa mfundo zotsutsana, mawu, mikangano, ndi zina zotero."; “kutsutsa, mwa munthu payekha, za zilakolako zosagwirizana kapena zosowa za mphamvu pafupifupi zofanana; ndiponso, mkhalidwe wovutitsa wamaganizo wobwera chifukwa cha chitsutso choterocho”; ndi "kuthamangira limodzi, kugundana, kapena chiwawa chathupi" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019a). "Nkhondo" ndi "uchigawenga" adagwiritsidwanso ntchito ngati mawu osaka ndi mawu omwe tawatchulawa.
Mabuku a Gray sanagwiritsidwe ntchito pakuwunika kwa mabuku. Zolemba zonse komanso zolemba zomwe sizinali zonse, koma zokumana ndi matanthauzo amitundu yoyenera, zidawunikiridwa. Ngongole yamalaibulale inagwiritsidwa ntchito kuyitanitsa zolemba zamanyuzipepala zaukatswiri, zowunikiridwa ndi anzawo zomwe sizinali zolembedwa zonse m'nkhokwe zamaphunziro apa intaneti.
Nigeria ndi Cameroon
Crisis in Africa, malinga ndi Mamdani, ndi zitsanzo za zovuta za dziko pambuyo paukoloni (2001). Utsamunda udasokoneza mgwirizano pakati pa anthu aku Africa ndikuyika malire amitundu ndi mayiko (Olasupo, Ijeoma, & Oladeji, 2017). Fuko lomwe limalamulira boma limalamulira kwambiri, motero dziko litangolandira ufulu wodzilamulira lidagwa chifukwa cha mikangano yapakati pamitundu ndi mitundu (Olasupo et al., 2017).
Chipembedzo chinali chodziwika bwino m'mikangano yambiri ku Nigeria kuyambira pomwe idadzilamulira mu 1960 (Onapajo, 2017). Nkhondo ya Boko Haram isanachitike, kafukufuku adapeza kuti Nigeria ndi amodzi mwa mayiko aku Africa omwe ali ndi mikangano yachipembedzo (Onapajo, 2017). Mabizinesi ambiri adatsekedwa ku Nigeria chifukwa cha zipolowe zachipembedzo ndipo ambiri adabedwa kapena kuwonongedwa ndipo eni ake adaphedwa kapena kuthawa kwawo (Anwuloorah, 2016). Popeza mabizinesi ambiri apadziko lonse lapansi komanso amitundu yambiri akusamukira kumadera ena komwe chitetezo sichili vuto, ogwira ntchito adasowa ntchito ndipo mabanja adakhudzidwa (Anwulorah, 2016). Foyou, Ngwafu, Santoyo, and Ortiz (2018) akukambirana za mavuto azachuma a uchigawenga ku Nigeria ndi Cameroon. Olembawo akufotokoza momwe kuukira kwa Boko Haram kudutsa malire kupita kumpoto kwa Cameroon "kwathandizira kutsika kwachuma komwe kumathandizira zigawo zitatu zakumpoto kwa Cameroon [Kumpoto, Kumpoto, Kumpoto, ndi Adamawa] ndikuwopseza chitetezo cha dzikolo. anthu opanda thandizo mdera lino” (Foyou et al, 2018, p. 73). Pambuyo pa zigawenga za Boko Horam zidadutsa kumpoto kwa Cameroon ndi zigawo za Chad ndi Niger, Cameroon pamapeto pake idathandiza Nigeria (Foyou et al., 2018). Zigawenga za Boko Haram ku Nigeria, zomwe zapha anthu masauzande ambiri kuphatikizapo Asilamu ndi Akhristu, ndikuwononga katundu, zomangamanga ndi ntchito zachitukuko, zikuwopseza "chitetezo cha dziko, zimayambitsa tsoka laumunthu, kusokonezeka maganizo, kusokoneza ntchito za sukulu, kusowa ntchito. , ndi kuwonjezeka kwa umphawi, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti pakhale chuma chofooka "(Ugorji, 2017, p. 165).
Iran, Iraq, Turkey, ndi Syria
Nkhondo ya Iran-Iraq inayamba mu 1980 mpaka 1988 ndi ndalama zonse zachuma ku mayiko onse aŵiri $1.097 trilioni, owerengedwa ngati 1 thililiyoni ndi 97 biliyoni madola (Mofrid, 1990). Poukira Iran, "Saddam Hussein adafuna kuthetsa zambiri ndi mnansi wake chifukwa cha zosagwirizana ndi mgwirizano wa Algiers, womwe adakambirana ndi Shah waku Iran mu 1975, komanso thandizo la Ayatollah Khomeini kwa magulu otsutsa achisilamu otsutsana ndi boma la Iraq". (Parasiliti, 2003, p. 152).
Islamic State ku Iraq ndi Syria (ISIS) idapatsidwa mphamvu chifukwa cha mikangano komanso kusakhazikika ndipo idakhala bungwe lodziyimira pawokha (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). ISIS idalanda madera opitilira Syria, kupita ku Iraq ndi Lebanon, komanso mkangano wachiwawa, kupha anthu wamba (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Panali malipoti a "kuphedwa kwaunyinji ndi kugwiriridwa kwa ma Shi'is, akhristu, ndi mitundu ina ndi zipembedzo zazing'ono" ndi ISIS (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015. p. 1). Zinawonekanso kuti ISIS inali ndi ndondomeko yomwe inadutsa ndondomeko yodzipatula, ndipo izi zinali zosiyana ndi magulu ena achigawenga m'dera la Iran (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Zosintha zambiri kuphatikiza pachitetezo zimakhudza kukula kwa mzinda, ndipo izi zikuphatikizanso mtundu wachitetezo, kukwera kwachuma ndi kuchuluka kwa anthu, komanso kuthekera kwachiwopsezo (Falah, 2017).
Pambuyo pa Iran, Iraq ili ndi anthu ambiri a Shi'i padziko lonse lapansi omwe ali pafupi ndi 60-75% ya ma Iraqi, ndipo ndizofunikira ku ndondomeko yachipembedzo ya Iran (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Kuchuluka kwa malonda pakati pa Iraq ndi Iran kunali $13 biliyoni (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Kukula kwa malonda pakati pa Iran ndi Iraq kudadza kudzera pakulimbitsa ubale pakati pa atsogoleri a mayiko awiriwa, Akurds, ndi mabanja ang'onoang'ono a Shi'i (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015).
Ambiri a Kurds amakhala m'madera omwe ali ku Iraq, Iran, Turkey, ndi Syria omwe amatchedwa Kurdistan (Brathwaite, 2014). Mafumu a Ottoman, Britain, Soviet, ndi France adalamulira derali mpaka kumapeto kwa WWII (Brathwaite, 2014). Iraq, Iran, Turkey, ndi Syria anayesa kupondereza anthu ang'onoang'ono aku Kurdish kudzera mu ndondomeko zosiyanasiyana zomwe zinachititsa kuti ayankhe mosiyana ndi a Kurds (Brathwaite, 2014). Anthu aku Kurd aku Syria sanapanduke kuyambira 1961 mpaka kuwukira kwa PKK ku 1984 ndipo palibe mkangano womwe unafalikira kuchokera ku Iraq kupita ku Syria (Brathwaite, 2014). A Kurds aku Syria adalumikizana ndi mafuko awo pankhondo yolimbana ndi Iraq ndi Turkey m'malo moyambitsa mikangano yolimbana ndi Syria (Brathwaite, 2014).
Dera la Iraqi Kurdistan (KRI) lasintha kwambiri zachuma m'zaka khumi zapitazi, kuphatikiza kuchuluka kwa anthu obwerera kwawo kuyambira 2013, chaka chomwe chikukula kwachuma ku Iraqi Kurdistan (Savasta, 2019). Zokhudza kusamuka kwa anthu ku Kurdistan kuyambira pakati pa zaka za m'ma 1980 ndi kusamuka panthawi ya kampeni ya Anfal mu 1988, kusamukanso pakati pa 1991 ndi 2003, komanso kukwera kwamatauni pambuyo pa ulamuliro wa Iraq mu 2003 (Eklund, Persson, & Pilesjö, 2016). Malo olima ambiri m'nyengo yozizira adawonetsedwa ngati akugwira ntchito panthawi yomanganso poyerekeza ndi nthawi ya pambuyo pa Anfal kuwonetsa kuti malo ena osiyidwa pambuyo pa kampeni ya Anfal idalandidwanso panthawi yomanganso (Eklund et al., 2016). Kuwonjezeka kwaulimi sikungathe kuchitika pambuyo pa zilango zamalonda panthawiyi zomwe zingafotokoze kufalikira kwa minda yachisanu (Eklund et al., 2016). Madera ena omwe sanalimidwepo adakhala malo obzala mbewu m'nyengo yozizira ndipo panali kuwonjezeka kwa zokolola m'nyengo yozizira zaka khumi pambuyo pa kutha kwa nthawi yomanganso ndipo boma la Iraq linagwa (Eklund et al., 2016). Ndi mkangano pakati pa Islamic State (IS) ndi maboma a Kurdish ndi Iraq, chisokonezo mu 2014 chikuwonetsa kuti derali likupitirizabe kukhudzidwa ndi mikangano (Eklund et al., 2016).
Nkhondo ya Kurdish ku Turkey idayambira mu Ufumu wa Ottoman (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2017). Atsogoleri amitundu ndi azipembedzo ayenera kuphatikizidwa pakumvetsetsa mkangano wa Kurdish (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2017). Malingaliro a a Kurds pa mkangano wa ku Turkey komanso kumvetsetsa kwa anthu amtundu wa Turkey pamodzi ndi mafuko owonjezera ku Turkey ndikofunikira kuti timvetsetse mikangano pagulu lino (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2016). Zigawenga zaku Kurdish pazisankho zampikisano za Turkey zikuwonetsedwa mu 1950 (Tezcur, 2015). Kuchulukirachulukira kwa gulu lachiwembu la Chikurdi lachiwawa komanso lopanda chiwawa ku Turkey kumapezeka pambuyo pa 1980 pomwe gulu lachigawenga la PKK (Partiya Karkereˆn Kurdistan), gulu lachiwewe la Kurdish, lidayambitsa nkhondo yachiwembu mu 1984 (Tezcur, 2015). Nkhondoyo idapitilira kupha anthu patatha zaka makumi atatu atayambitsa zigawenga (Tezcur, 2015).
Nkhondo ya Kurdish ku Turkey ikuwoneka ngati "choyimira nkhondo zapachiweniweni za ethno-nationalist" pofotokoza mgwirizano pakati pa nkhondo zapachiweniweni za ethno-nationalist ndi chiwonongeko cha chilengedwe monga nkhondo zapachiŵeniŵeni zikhoza kukhala zokhazokha ndikulola boma kuti ligwiritse ntchito ndondomeko yake yowononga dziko. zigawenga (Gurses, 2012, p.268). Mtengo wachuma womwe dziko la Turkey lidachita polimbana ndi a Kurdish separatists kuyambira 1984 ndipo mpaka kumapeto kwa 2005 zidakwana $88.1 biliyoni pamitengo yachindunji komanso yosalunjika (Mutlu, 2011). Ndalama zachindunji zimadza chifukwa cha mkanganowu pomwe ndalama zomwe sizinali zachindunji ndi zotsatira zake monga kutayika kwachuma cha anthu chifukwa cha kufa kapena kuvulala kwa anthu, kusamuka, kuthawa kwakukulu komanso ndalama zomwe zasiyidwa (Mutlu, 2011).
Israel
Israeli lero ndi dziko logawidwa ndi chipembedzo ndi maphunziro (Cochran, 2017). Pakhala pali mikangano yopitilira pakati pa Ayuda ndi Aluya ku Israeli kuyambira zaka za zana la makumi awiri ndikupitiliza mpaka koyambirira kwa zaka za zana la makumi awiri ndi chimodzi (Schein, 2017). A Britain adalanda dzikolo kuchokera kwa Ottomans pa Nkhondo Yadziko Lonse ndipo gawolo lidakhala malo operekera asitikali aku Britain ku WWII (Schein, 2017). Kulimbikitsidwa pansi pa ulamuliro wa Britain ndi boma la Israeli, Israeli yapereka zothandizira zosiyana koma zosafanana komanso mwayi wochepa wopita ku boma ndi maphunziro achipembedzo kuyambira 1920 mpaka pano (Cochran, 2017).
Kafukufuku wopangidwa ndi Schein (2017) adapeza kuti palibe zotsatira zomaliza zankhondo pachuma cha Israeli. WWI, WWII, ndi Nkhondo Yamasiku Asanu ndi Imodzi zinali zopindulitsa pachuma cha Israeli, koma "'kupanduka kwa Arabiya' kwa 1936-1939, nkhondo yapachiweniweni mu 1947-1948, nkhondo yoyamba ya Aarabu ndi Israeli kwa Aarabu okhala ku Mandatory. Palestine, ndi intifadas awiri anali ndi zotsatira zoipa pa chuma” (Schein, 2017, p. 662). Zotsatira zachuma za nkhondo ku 1956 ndi nkhondo yoyamba ndi yachiwiri ya Lebanoni inali "zochepa zabwino kapena zoipa" (Schein, 2017, p. 662). Popeza kusiyana kwa nthawi yayitali pazachuma kuchokera ku nkhondo yoyamba ya Aarabu ndi Israeli kwa Ayuda okhala ku Palestine Yovomerezeka ndi Yom Kippur War komanso kusiyana kwanthawi yochepa pazachuma kuchokera ku Nkhondo Yolimbana ndi Nkhondo sikungadziwike, zotsatira zake zachuma. sizingathetsedwe (Schein, 2017).
Schein (2017) akukambirana mfundo ziwiri powerengera mavuto azachuma pankhondo: (1) chofunikira kwambiri pakuwerengera uku ndikusintha kwachuma kuchokera kunkhondo komanso (2) kuti nkhondo zamkati kapena zapachiweniweni zimawononga kwambiri chuma. kukula poyerekeza ndi kutayika kwa ndalama zakuthupi kuchokera kunkhondo kuyambira pomwe chuma chimayima pankhondo zamkati kapena zapachiweniweni. WWI ndi chitsanzo cha kusintha kwachuma kuchokera kunkhondo (Schein, 2017). Ngakhale WWI idawononga likulu laulimi ku Israeli, kusintha kwachuma chifukwa cha WWI kunapangitsa kukula kwachuma nkhondo itatha, motero WWI idakhudzanso kukula kwachuma ku Israel (Schein, 2017). Lingaliro lachiwiri ndiloti nkhondo zamkati kapena zapachiŵeniŵeni, zomwe zikuwonetsedwa ndi ma intifadas awiri ndi 'Arab Revolt', momwe kutayika kwachuma kunabwera chifukwa cha chuma chosagwira ntchito kwa nthawi yaitali, kumayambitsa kuvulaza kwambiri kukula kwachuma kusiyana ndi kutayika kwa chuma chakuthupi kuchokera ku nkhondo ( Schein, 2017).
Mfundo zokhudzana ndi zotsatira zachuma za nthawi yayitali komanso zazifupi za nkhondo zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito mu kafukufuku wopangidwa ndi Ellenberg et al. (2017) zokhudzana ndi magwero akuluakulu a ndalama zankhondo monga ndalama zogulira zipatala, chithandizo chamankhwala chamisala kuti muchepetse kupsinjika kwakanthawi, komanso kutsata kwa ambulatory. Kafukufukuyu anali kutsatira kwa miyezi ya 18 kwa anthu wamba aku Israeli pambuyo pa nkhondo ya 2014 ku Gaza panthawi yomwe ofufuzawo adasanthula ndalama zachipatala zomwe zimakhudzidwa ndi kuwukira kwa rocket ndikuwunika kuchuluka kwa anthu omwe adazunzidwa omwe adapereka madandaulo olumala. Ndalama zambiri m'chaka choyamba zinali zokhudzana ndi kugonekedwa m'chipatala komanso kuthandizira kuthetsa nkhawa (Ellenberg et al., 2017). Ndalama zamagalimoto ndi kukonzanso zidakwera m'chaka chachiwiri (Ellenberg et al., 2017). Zotsatira zandalama zoterezi pazachuma sizinachitike mchaka choyamba koma zidapitilira kukula kwa nthawi yayitali.
Afghanistan
Kuchokera pagulu lankhondo la chikomyunizimu People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan mu 1978 ndi kuwukira kwa Soviet ku 1979, anthu aku Afghanistan akumana ndi ziwawa zaka makumi atatu, nkhondo yapachiweniweni, kuponderezana, komanso kuyeretsa mafuko (Callen, Isaqzadeh, Long, & Sprenger, 2014). Mikangano yamkati ikupitilirabe kusokoneza chitukuko cha zachuma ku Afghanistan chomwe chachepetsa ndalama zachinsinsi (Huelin, 2017). Zipembedzo ndi mafuko osiyanasiyana zilipo ku Afghanistan komwe mafuko khumi ndi atatu ali ndi zikhulupiriro zosiyanasiyana zomwe zimapikisana pakuwongolera zachuma (Dixon, Kerr, & Mangahas, 2014).
Zomwe zimakhudza zachuma ku Afghanistan ndizochita zachipongwe chifukwa zikutsutsana ndi kupita patsogolo kwachuma ku Afghanistan (Dixon, Kerr, & Mangahas, 2014). Afghanistan ndi gwero la 87% ya opium ndi heroin osaloledwa padziko lonse lapansi kuyambira pomwe adadzudzula a Taliban mu 2001 (Dixon et al., 2014). Ndi pafupifupi 80% ya anthu aku Afghanistan omwe akuchita zaulimi, Afghanistan imadziwika kuti ndi chuma chaulimi (Dixon et al., 2014). Afghanistan ili ndi misika yochepa, ndipo opiamu ndiye wamkulu kwambiri (Dixon et al., 2014).
Ku Afghanistan, dziko lankhondo lomwe lili ndi zinthu zachilengedwe zomwe zingathandize Afghanistan kuti ikhale yosadalira thandizo, osunga ndalama ndi madera akukumana ndi mfundo zosagwirizana ndi maboma ndi osunga ndalama (del Castillo, 2014). Ndalama zakunja zakunja (FDI) m'minda yamchere ndi minda yaulimi, ndi mfundo zaboma zothandizira ndalamazi, zayambitsa mikangano ndi anthu omwe athawa kwawo (del Castillo, 2014).
Akuyerekeza ndi polojekiti ya Costs of War ku Watson Institute for International Studies kuti ndalama za US kuchokera ku 2001 mpaka 2011 kupyolera mu nkhondo za Iraq, Afghanistan, ndi Pakistan zinakwana $ 3.2 mpaka $ 4 trilioni zomwe zinali kuyerekezera katatu (Masco, 2013). Ndalamazi zinaphatikizapo nkhondo zenizeni, ndalama zachipatala kwa asilikali omenyera nkhondo, ndalama zoyendetsera chitetezo, ntchito zothandizira Dipatimenti ya Boma, ndi Homeland Security (Masco, 2013). Olembawo akulemba kuti pafupi ndi asitikali ankhondo a 10,000 aku US ndi makontrakitala aphedwa ndipo zonena za olumala za 675,000 zidaperekedwa kwa Veteran Affairs pofika Seputembara 2011 (Masco, 2013). Anthu ovulala ku Iraq, Afghanistan, ndi Pakistan akuyerekeza osachepera 137,000, ndi othawa kwawo opitilira 3.2 miliyoni ochokera ku Iraq omwe tsopano asamukira kudera lonselo (Masco, 2013). Ntchito ya Cost of Wars idaphunziranso ndalama zina zambiri kuphatikiza mtengo wachilengedwe komanso mtengo wa mwayi (Masco, 2013).
Zokambirana ndi Pomaliza
Mkangano wachipembedzo wa Ethno-Religious ukuwoneka kuti umakhudza mayiko, anthu, ndi magulu mwachindunji komanso mosagwirizana ndi zachuma. Ndalamazi zimatha kutsatiridwa ndi ndalama zomwe zafotokozedwa mu kafukufukuyu, komanso mwanjira ina, monga tawonera m'magawo atatu akumwera kwa Thailand - Pattani, Yala, ndi Narathiwat (Ford, Jampaklay, & Chamratrithirong, 2018). Mu kafukufukuyu womwe unaphatikizapo achinyamata achisilamu a 2,053 azaka zapakati pa 18-24, omwe adachita nawo kafukufukuyu adanenanso za kuchepa kwa matenda amisala ngakhale ochepa adanenanso "chiwerengero chachikulu chokwanira chodetsa nkhawa" (Ford et al., 2018, p. . 1). Zizindikiro zambiri zamisala komanso kuchepa kwa chisangalalo zidapezeka mwa omwe adafuna kusamuka kukagwira ntchito kudera lina (Ford et al., 2018). Ambiri omwe adatenga nawo gawo adafotokoza nkhawa za nkhanza zomwe zimachitika pamoyo wawo watsiku ndi tsiku ndipo adanenanso zopinga zambiri potsata maphunziro, kuphatikiza kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo, kukwera mtengo kwamaphunziro, komanso kuwopseza chiwawa (Ford, et al., 2018). Makamaka, amuna omwe adatenga nawo gawo adawonetsa nkhawa zawo powakayikira kuti akuchita nawo zachiwawa komanso kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo (Ford et al., 2018). Dongosolo losamuka kapena kukakhala ku Pattani, Yala ndi Narathiwat linali logwirizana ndi ntchito zoletsedwa komanso kuwopseza chiwawa (Ford et al., 2018). Zinapezeka kuti ngakhale kuti achinyamata ambiri amapita patsogolo ndi moyo wawo ndipo ambiri amasonyeza kuti amakonda chiwawa, mavuto azachuma omwe amabwera chifukwa cha chiwawa komanso kuopseza chiwawa nthawi zambiri amakhudza moyo wawo wa tsiku ndi tsiku (Ford et al., 2018). Ndalama zosalunjika zachuma sizikanatha kuwerengedwa mosavuta m'mabuku.
Madera ena ambiri okhudzana ndi mavuto azachuma a mikangano yachipembedzo ndi ethno-religious amafuna kufufuza kwina, kuphatikiza kafukufuku yemwe adayang'ana pa kuwerengera mgwirizano wokhudzana ndi mikangano yachipembedzo ndi zotsatira zake pazachuma, mayiko owonjezera ndi madera ena, komanso kutalika kwa mikangano ndi zotsatira zake. mwachuma. Monga Collier (1999) adafotokozera, "Mtendere umasinthanso kusintha komwe kumachitika chifukwa cha nkhondo yapachiweniweni yayitali. Tanthauzo lake ndilakuti pambuyo pa kutha kwa nkhondo zazitali zochitika zomwe zili pachiwopsezo cha nkhondo zimakula mwachangu kwambiri: gawo lamtendere lachiwopsezo limakulitsidwa ndi kusintha kwamitundu” (p. 182). Pazoyesayesa zokhazikitsa mtendere, kafukufuku wopitilira m'derali ndi wofunikira kwambiri.
Malangizo Othandizira Kafukufuku Wowonjezereka: Njira Zamagulu Osiyanasiyana Pakumanga Mtendere
Kuonjezera apo, ngati kufufuza kwina kukufunika pakulimbikitsa mtendere monga momwe tafotokozera kale zokhudzana ndi mikangano yachipembedzo, ndi njira ziti, njira, ndi njira zophunzirira zomwe zimathandiza pa kafukufukuyu? Kufunika kwa mgwirizano wamagulu osiyanasiyana sikunganyalanyazidwe pakupanga mtendere monga machitidwe osiyanasiyana kuphatikizapo, koma osati, ntchito zachitukuko, chikhalidwe cha anthu, zachuma, ubale wapadziko lonse, maphunziro achipembedzo, maphunziro a amuna ndi akazi, mbiri yakale, chikhalidwe cha anthu, maphunziro oyankhulana, ndi sayansi ya ndale, kubwera ku kukhazikitsa mtendere ndi njira zosiyanasiyana, makamaka zongoyerekeza.
Kuwonetsa luso la kuphunzitsa kuthetsa mikangano ndi kukhazikitsa mtendere kuti apange chilungamo chamtundu, chikhalidwe, chilengedwe, ndi zachuma ndizofunikira kwambiri pa maphunziro a maphunziro a anthu omwe ali ndi maphunziro apamwamba komanso omaliza maphunziro. Maphunziro ambiri amatenga nawo mbali pophunzitsa kuthetsa kusamvana, ndipo mgwirizano wa maphunzirowo ukhoza kulimbikitsa njira yokhazikitsa mtendere. Kafukufuku wowunika zomwe zili mkati sizinapezeke pakufufuza mwatsatanetsatane m'mabuku owunikiridwa ndi anzawo omwe amafotokoza za kuthetsa kusamvana kuchokera kumalingaliro aakatswiri, kuphatikiza kusiyanasiyana, kusiyanasiyana komanso malingaliro osagwirizana, malingaliro omwe amathandizira pakuzama, kufalikira, ndi kuchuluka kwa kuthetsa mikangano ndi njira zokhazikitsa mtendere.
Kuvomerezedwa ndi ntchito ya chikhalidwe cha anthu, malingaliro a chilengedwe adapangidwa kuchokera ku chiphunzitso cha machitidwe ndipo adapereka lingaliro la kukula kwa njira ya generalist mu chikhalidwe cha anthu (Suppes & Wells, 2018). Njira ya generalist imayang'ana pamagulu angapo, kapena machitidwe, olowererapo, kuphatikiza munthu payekha, banja, gulu, bungwe, ndi dera. Pankhani yokhazikitsa mtendere ndi kuthetsa mikangano, mayiko, dziko, ndi dziko lonse lapansi akuwonjezeredwa ngati njira zothandizira ngakhale kuti magawowa nthawi zambiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito monga mabungwe ndi magulu a anthu. Mu Chithunzi 1 m'munsimu, boma, dziko, ndi dziko lonse lapansi zimagwira ntchito ngati magawo osiyana (machitidwe) olowererapo. Kulingalira uku kumapangitsa kuti magulu osiyanasiyana okhala ndi chidziwitso ndi luso la kukhazikitsa mtendere ndi kuthetsa mikangano alowererepo mogwirizana pamagulu enaake, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti chilango chilichonse chipereke mphamvu zawo pakupanga mtendere ndi kuthetsa mikangano. Monga tafotokozera mu Chithunzi 1, njira yamagulu amitundu yosiyanasiyana sikuti imangolola, koma imalimbikitsa, maphunziro onse kuti achite nawo ntchito yokhazikitsa mtendere ndi kuthetsa mikangano makamaka pogwira ntchito ndi machitidwe osiyanasiyana monga mkangano wachipembedzo.
Kufufuza kwina kwa kuthetsa mikangano yamaphunziro ndi mafotokozedwe a maphunziro olimbikitsa mtendere ndi njira zophunzitsira mu ntchito zachitukuko ndi machitidwe ena akulangizidwa monga momwe machitidwe abwino opangira mtendere angafotokozedwe mozama ndikuwonetsetsa kuti agwire ntchito zamtendere. Zosintha zomwe zaphunziridwa zimaphatikizansopo zopereka ndi mfundo za maphunziro othetsa mikangano komanso kutengapo gawo kwa ophunzira pakuthetsa kusamvana padziko lonse lapansi. Mwachitsanzo, ndondomeko ya chikhalidwe cha anthu, imayang'ana pa chilungamo cha chikhalidwe cha anthu, mtundu, zachuma, ndi chilengedwe pothetsa kusamvana monga momwe Council on Social Work Education 2022 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards for Baccalaureate and Master's Programs (p. 9, Council on Social Education 2022) Maphunziro a Ntchito, XNUMX):
Kukwanitsa 2: Kupititsa patsogolo Ufulu Wachibadwidwe ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu, mtundu, chuma, ndi chilungamo cha chilengedwe
Ogwira ntchito zamagulu amamvetsetsa kuti munthu aliyense mosasamala kanthu za udindo pakati pa anthu ali ndi ufulu waumunthu. Ogwira ntchito zaumphawi amadziŵa bwino za kusalungama kwapadziko lonse komanso kosalekeza kosalekeza m'mbiri yonse yomwe imayambitsa kuponderezedwa ndi tsankho, kuphatikizapo ntchito ya chikhalidwe cha anthu ndi kuyankha. Ogwira ntchito zaumphawi amawunika mozama kugawidwa kwa mphamvu ndi mwayi pakati pa anthu kuti apititse patsogolo chilungamo cha chikhalidwe cha anthu, mafuko, chuma, ndi chilengedwe mwa kuchepetsa kusagwirizana ndi kuonetsetsa kuti anthu onse azikhala ndi ulemu ndi ulemu. Ogwira ntchito zaumphawi amalimbikitsa ndikuchita nawo njira zothetsera zopinga zopondereza za zomangamanga pofuna kuonetsetsa kuti chikhalidwe cha anthu, ufulu, ndi maudindo akugawidwa mofanana komanso kuti ufulu wa anthu, ndale, zachuma, chikhalidwe, ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu zimatetezedwa.
Othandiza anthu:
a) kuyimira ufulu wachibadwidwe pamunthu, banja, gulu, mabungwe, ndi magulu ammudzi; ndi
b) kuchita zinthu zopititsa patsogolo ufulu wa anthu pofuna kulimbikitsa chilungamo cha chikhalidwe cha anthu, fuko, chuma, ndi chilengedwe.
Kusanthula zomwe zachitika, zomwe zachitika mwachisawawa zamaphunziro othetsa mikangano kudzera m'mayunivesite ndi makoleji ku United States komanso padziko lonse lapansi, zidapeza kuti ngakhale maphunzirowa amaphunzitsa malingaliro othetsera mikangano, maphunziro nthawi zambiri samapatsidwa mitu iyi pazantchito zantchito komanso maphunziro ena. Kafukufuku wasonyezanso kusiyana kwakukulu kwa chiwerengero cha maphunziro omwe akukhudzidwa ndi kuthetsa kusamvana, kuyang'ana kwa maphunzirowa pothetsa mikangano, malo a maphunziro othetsera mikangano ndi mapulogalamu mkati mwa yunivesite kapena koleji, chiwerengero ndi mitundu ya maphunziro othetsa mikangano. Kafukufuku omwe ali ndi njira zosiyanasiyana, zamphamvu, komanso zogwirizana ndi akatswiri komanso machitidwe othana ndi mikangano ndi mwayi wofufuza ndi kukambirana ku United States komanso padziko lonse lapansi (Conrad, Reyes, & Stewart, 2022; Dyson, del Mar Fariña, Gurrola, & Cross-Denny, 2020; Friedman, 2019; Hatiboğlu, Özateş Gelmez, & Öngen, 2019; Onken, Franks, Lewis, & Han, 2021).
Ntchito ya chikhalidwe cha anthu monga olimbikitsa mtendere ndi kuthetsa mikangano ingagwiritse ntchito chiphunzitso cha chilengedwe pazochitika zawo. Mwachitsanzo, njira zosiyanasiyana zomwe zigawenga zimagwiritsidwa ntchito zomwe sizikhala zachiwawa m'chilengedwe (Ryckman, 2020; Cunningham, Dahl, & Frugé 2017) adafufuzidwa (Cunningham & Doyle, 2021). Othandizira olimbikitsa mtendere komanso akatswiri apereka chidwi paulamuliro wa zigawenga (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021). Cunningham and Loyle (2021) adapeza kuti kafukufuku wokhudza magulu opanduka amayang'ana kwambiri machitidwe ndi zochitika zomwe zigawenga zikuwonetsa zomwe sizili mgulu lankhondo, kuphatikiza kumanga mabungwe am'deralo ndikupereka chithandizo chamagulu (Mampilly, 2011; Arjona, 2016a; Arjona , Kasfir, & Mampilly, 2015). Kuphatikiza pa chidziwitso chomwe chapezedwa m'maphunzirowa, kafukufuku wayang'ana kwambiri pakuwunika zomwe zimachitika pamachitidwe olamulira awa m'maiko angapo (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021; Huang, 2016; Heger & Jung, 2017; Stewart, 2018). Komabe, kafukufuku waulamuliro wa zigawenga nthawi zambiri amawunika nkhani zaulamuliro makamaka ngati gawo la njira zothetsera mikangano kapena amangoyang'ana njira zachiwawa (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021). Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa njira ya chilengedwe kungakhale kothandiza pogwiritsira ntchito chidziwitso ndi luso la mitundu yosiyanasiyana pakupanga mtendere ndi njira zothetsera mikangano.
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