Christopher Columbus: Chipilala Chotsutsana ku New York
Kudalirika
Christopher Columbus, ngwazi wolemekezeka kwambiri ku Europe yemwe nkhani yayikulu ku Europe ikuwonetsa kupezedwa kwa America, koma yemwe chithunzi chake ndi cholowa chake zimayimira kuphana kwa anthu amtundu waku America ndi ku Caribbean, wakhala munthu wotsutsana. Pepalali likuwunikira chithunzi chophiphiritsira cha chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus kumbali zonse ziwiri za mkangano - anthu aku Italy aku America omwe adachimanga ku Columbus Circle ku New York City ndi m'malo ena mbali imodzi, ndi Indigenous Peoples of America ndi Caribbean omwe makolo awo anaphedwa ndi adani a ku Ulaya, kumbali inayo. Kupyolera mu magalasi a kukumbukira mbiri yakale ndi malingaliro othetsa mikangano, pepalali likutsogoleredwa ndi hermeneutics - kutanthauzira mozama ndi kumvetsetsa - kwa chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus monga momwe ndinadziwira panthawi ya kafukufuku wanga pa malo ano okumbukira. Kuphatikiza apo, mikangano ndi mikangano yaposachedwa yomwe kupezeka kwake pagulu pamtima pa Manhattan kumadzutsa kumawunikidwa mozama. Pochita izi hermeneutical momwe kusanthula mozama, mafunso atatu akulu akufufuzidwa. 1) Kodi chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus monga chipilala chambiri chotsutsana chikanatanthauziridwa ndi kumveka bwanji? 2) Kodi malingaliro a kukumbukira mbiri amatiuza chiyani za chipilala cha Christopher Columbus? 3) Kodi ndi maphunziro ati omwe tingaphunzire kuchokera ku kukumbukira komweku komwe kumayambitsa mikangano kuti tipewe kapena kuthetsa mikangano yofananayi mtsogolomo ndikumanga mzinda wa New York ndi America wophatikiza, wofanana komanso wololera? Pepalali likumaliza ndi kuyang'ana tsogolo la mzinda wa New York monga chitsanzo cha mzinda wa zikhalidwe zosiyanasiyana, ku America.
Introduction
Pa September 1, 2018, ndinachoka kunyumba kwathu ku White Plains, New York, kupita ku Columbus Circle mumzinda wa New York. Columbus Circle ndi amodzi mwa malo ofunikira kwambiri ku New York City. Ndi malo ofunikira osati chifukwa chakuti ili pamphambano za misewu ikuluikulu inayi ku Manhattan - West ndi South Central Park, Broadway, ndi Eighth Avenue - koma chofunika kwambiri, pakati pa Columbus Circle ndi nyumba ya fano la Christopher Columbus, ngwazi wolemekezeka kwambiri ku Europe yemwe nkhani yayikulu yaku Europe ikuwonetsa kupezedwa kwa America, koma chithunzi chake ndi cholowa chake zimayimira kuphana kwa anthu amtundu waku America ndi Caribbean.
Monga malo okumbukira mbiri yakale ku America ndi ku Caribbean, ndidasankha kuchita kafukufuku wowonera pachipilala cha Christopher Columbus ku Columbus Circle ku New York City ndikuyembekeza kukulitsa kumvetsetsa kwanga kwa Christopher Columbus komanso chifukwa chake adakhala wotsutsana. ku America ndi ku Caribbean. Chifukwa chake cholinga changa chinali kumvetsetsa chifaniziro chophiphiritsira cha chifaniziro cha Christopher Columbus kumbali zonse ziwiri za mkangano - Achitaliyana Achimereka omwe adachimanga ku Columbus Circle ndi m'malo ena mbali imodzi, ndi Indigenous Peoples of America ndi Caribbean. omwe makolo awo anaphedwa ndi adani a ku Ulaya, kumbali inayo.
Kupyolera mu magalasi a kukumbukira mbiri yakale ndi malingaliro othetsa mikangano, kulingalira kwanga kumatsogoleredwa ndi hermeneutics - kutanthauzira mozama ndi kumvetsetsa - kwa chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus monga ndinachiwonera paulendo wanga wa tsamba, ndikufotokozera mikangano ndi mikangano yamakono yomwe ilipo pagulu. mkati mwa Manhattan amadzutsa. Pochita izi hermeneutical momwe kusanthula mozama, mafunso atatu akulu akufufuzidwa. 1) Kodi chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus monga chipilala chambiri chotsutsana chikanatanthauziridwa ndi kumveka bwanji? 2) Kodi malingaliro a kukumbukira mbiri amatiuza chiyani za chipilala cha Christopher Columbus? 3) Kodi ndi maphunziro ati omwe tingaphunzire kuchokera ku kukumbukira komweku komwe kumayambitsa mikangano kuti tipewe kapena kuthetsa mikangano yofananayi mtsogolomo ndikumanga mzinda wa New York ndi America wophatikiza, wofanana komanso wololera?
Pepalali likumaliza ndi kuyang'ana tsogolo la mzinda wa New York monga chitsanzo cha mzinda wamitundu yosiyanasiyana ku America.
Kupezeka ku Columbus Circle
Mzinda wa New York ndi malo osungunuka padziko lonse lapansi chifukwa chamitundu yosiyanasiyana komanso anthu osiyanasiyana. Kuphatikiza apo, ndi nyumba ya ntchito zaluso zofunika kwambiri, zipilala ndi zolembera zomwe zimakumbukira mbiri yakale zomwe zimatipanga kuti ndife anthu aku America komanso anthu. Ngakhale malo ena okumbukira mbiri yakale ku New York City ndi akale, ena amamangidwa mu 21st kuti tikumbukire zochitika zofunika kwambiri zakale zomwe zasiya chizindikiro chosaiwalika pa anthu ndi dziko lathu. Ngakhale kuti ena ndi otchuka komanso amapezeka kwambiri ndi anthu aku America komanso alendo ochokera kumayiko ena, ena sakhalanso otchuka monga momwe amakhalira pomwe amamangidwa koyamba.
Chikumbutso cha pa 9/11 ndi chitsanzo cha malo ochezeredwa kwambiri okumbukira anthu onse ku New York City. Chifukwa kukumbukira kwa 9/11 kudakali kwatsopano m'maganizo mwathu, ndinali ndikukonzekera kusinkhasinkha kwanga. Koma ndikamafufuza malo ena okumbukira mbiri yakale ku New York City, ndidapeza kuti zomwe zidachitika ku Charlottesville mu Ogasiti 2017 zidayambitsa "kukambirana kovuta" (Stone et al., 2010) pazipilala zolemekezeka koma zotsutsana ku America. Kuyambira 2015 kuwombera koopsa mkati mwa Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church ku Charleston, South Carolina, ndi Dylann Roof, wachinyamata wotsatira gulu la White Supremacist komanso wochirikiza zizindikiro ndi zipilala za Confederate, mizinda yambiri yavotera kuchotsa ziboliboli ndi zipilala zina zomwe. kusonyeza udani ndi kuponderezana.
Pomwe zokambirana zathu zapagulu zakhala zikuyang'ana kwambiri zipilala ndi mbendera za Confederate monga momwe zidachitikira ku Charlottesville komwe mzindawu udavota kuti achotse chiboliboli cha Robert E. Lee ku Emancipation Park, ku New York City, makamaka chifanizo cha Christopher Columbus. ndi zomwe zimayimira kwa Amwenye Achimereka aku America ndi ku Caribbean. Monga New Yorker, ndidawona ziwonetsero zambiri mu 2017 zotsutsana ndi chifanizo cha Christopher Columbus. Anthu otsutsa zionetsero ndi Amwenye anafuna kuti chiboliboli cha Columbus chichotsedwe ku Columbus Circle ndi kuti chiboliboli kapena chipilala chapadera choimira Indigenous Peoples of America chitumizidwe kuti chilowe m’malo mwa Columbus.
Pamene zionetserozo zinkachitika, ndikukumbukira kuti ndinadzifunsa mafunso awiri awa: Kodi zomwe anthu a ku America ndi Caribbean adakumana nazo zawatsogolera bwanji poyera komanso mwaukali kuti achotse nthano yodziwika bwino, Christopher Columbus, yemwe adanenedwa kuti mwapeza America? Pazifukwa ziti zomwe kufuna kwawo kudzalungamitsidwa mu 21st New York City? Kuti ndifufuze mayankho a mafunsowa, ndinaganiza zolingalira za chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus pamene chikusonyezedwa ku dziko kuchokera ku Columbus Circle ku New York City ndi kufufuza chimene kukhalapo kwake mu malo a anthu onse a Mzinda kumatanthauza kwa onse okhala ku New York.
Pamene ndinaima pafupi ndi chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus pakati pa Columbus Circle, ndinadabwa kwenikweni ndi mmene Wosema Wachitaliyana, Gaetano Russo, analanda ndi kuimira moyo ndi maulendo a Christopher Columbus m’chipilala chachitali cha mamita 76. Chojambulidwa ku Italy, chipilala cha Columbus chinakhazikitsidwa pa Columbus Circle pa Okutobala 13, 1892 kukumbukira zaka 400 za kubwera kwa Columbus ku America. Ngakhale kuti sindine wojambula kapena woyendetsa ngalawa, ndinatha kupeza chithunzithunzi chatsatanetsatane cha ulendo wa Columbus wopita ku America. Mwachitsanzo, Columbus akusonyezedwa pachipilala chimenechi monga woyendetsa ngalawa wolimba mtima ataimirira m’chombo chake modabwa ndi zochitika zake ndi zodabwitsa za zinthu zatsopano zimene anatulukira. Kuphatikiza apo, chipilalachi chili ndi choyimira ngati mkuwa cha zombo zitatu zomwe zili pansi pa Christopher Columbus. Pamene ndinkafufuza kuti ndidziwe zimene zombozi zili pa webusaiti ya New York City Department of Parks & Recreation, ndinapeza kuti zimatchedwa Nina, ndi PintaNdipo Santa Maria - zombo zitatu zomwe Columbus adagwiritsa ntchito paulendo wake woyamba kuchokera ku Spain kupita ku Bahamas zomwe zinachoka pa August 3, 1492 ndipo zinafika pa October 12, 1492. Pansi pa chipilala cha Columbus pali cholengedwa chokhala ngati mapiko chomwe chikuwoneka ngati mngelo womuteteza.
Chodabwitsa changa, komabe, komanso kulimbikitsa ndi kutsimikizira nkhani yayikulu yoti Christopher Columbus ndiye munthu woyamba kupeza America, palibe chilichonse pachikumbutsochi chomwe chikuyimira Amwenye kapena Amwenye omwe anali kukhala kale ku America Columbus asanabwere. gulu lake. Chilichonse pa chipilalachi ndi cha Christopher Columbus. Chilichonse chikuwonetsa nkhani ya kutulukira kwake kolimba mtima ku America.
Monga momwe tafotokozera m'chigawo chotsatirachi, chipilala cha Columbus ndi malo okumbukira osati okhawo omwe adalipira ndikuchimanga - Achimereka aku Italy - komanso ndi malo a mbiri yakale komanso kukumbukira kwa Amwenye Achimereka, chifukwa nawonso amakumbukira zowawa. ndi kukumana komvetsa chisoni kwa makolo awo ndi Columbus ndi otsatira ake nthawi iliyonse akawona Christopher Columbus atakwezedwa mkati mwa New York City. Komanso, chifanizo cha Christopher Columbus ku Columbus Circle ku New York City chakhala chojambula kutsiriza ad quo ndi Malonda a terminus (poyambira ndi pomalizira) pa Columbus Day Parade mwezi wa October. Anthu ambiri a ku New York amasonkhana ku Columbus Circle kuti abwererenso ndikuwonanso ndi Christopher Columbus ndi gulu lake kupeza kwawo ndikuwukira kwawo ku America. Komabe, monga aku Italiya aku America - omwe adalipira ndikuyika chipilalachi - komanso anthu aku Spain aku America omwe makolo awo adathandizira maulendo angapo a Columbus kupita ku America ndipo chifukwa chake adatenga nawo gawo ndikupindula ndi kuwukirako, komanso anthu ena aku Europe aku America amakondwerera mosangalala. Tsiku la Columbus, gawo limodzi la anthu a ku America - Amwenye kapena Amwenye Achimereka, eni eni enieni a dziko latsopano koma lakale lotchedwa America - amakumbutsidwa nthawi zonse za kupha anthu ndi chikhalidwe chawo m'manja mwa adani a ku Ulaya, kupha anthu obisika / otsekedwa. zomwe zinachitika m’masiku a Christopher Columbus komanso pambuyo pake. Chododometsa ichi chomwe chipilala cha Columbus chili ndi posachedwapa chayambitsa mkangano waukulu komanso mkangano wokhudzana ndi kufunika kwa mbiri yakale komanso chizindikiro cha chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus ku New York City.
Chifaniziro cha Christopher Columbus: Chipilala Chotsutsana ku New York City
Pamene ndinali kuyang’ana pachipilala chokongola ndi chokongola cha Christopher Columbus ku Columbus Circle ku New York City, ndinali kuganiziranso zokambitsirana zotsutsana za chipilalachi chayambitsa posachedwapa. Mu 2017, ndikukumbukira kuona anthu ambiri ochita zionetsero ku Columbus Circle omwe ankafuna kuti chifaniziro cha Christopher Columbus chichotsedwe. Mawailesi ndi wailesi yakanema ku New York City onse anali kukamba za mikangano yozungulira chipilala cha Columbus. Monga mwachizolowezi, andale a New York State ndi City adagawika ngati chipilala cha Columbus chiyenera kuchotsedwa kapena kukhala. Popeza chifaniziro cha Columbus Circle ndi Columbus ali mkati mwa malo opezeka anthu ambiri ku New York City, ndiye kuti zikuyenera kuti akuluakulu osankhidwa a New York City motsogozedwa ndi Meya asankhe ndikuchitapo kanthu.
Pa September 8, 2017, Meya a Bill de Blasio adakhazikitsa Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and Markers (Ofesi ya Meya, 2017). Komitiyi idachita zokambirana, idalandira zopempha kuchokera kwa maphwando ndi anthu, ndipo idasonkhanitsa mikangano yokhudzana ndi chifukwa chomwe chipilala cha Columbus chiyenera kukhala kapena kuchotsedwa. Kafukufuku adagwiritsidwanso ntchito kusonkhanitsa deta yowonjezereka ndi maganizo a anthu pa nkhani yotsutsanayi. Malinga ndi lipoti la Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and Markers (2018), "pali mikangano yokhazikika pa mphindi zinayi zonse zomwe zaganiziridwa pakuwunika kwa chipilalachi: moyo wa Christopher Columbus, cholinga pa nthawi yoperekedwa kwa chipilalachi, tanthauzo lake ndi tanthauzo lake, komanso tsogolo lake. cholowa” (tsamba 28).
Choyamba, pali mikangano yambiri yozungulira moyo wa Christopher Columbus. Zina mwazinthu zazikulu zomwe zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi iye ndi monga ngati Columbus adapezadi America kapena America adamupeza; kaya ankachitira anthu amwenye a ku America ndi ku Caribbean omwe anamulandira ndi gulu lake n’kuwachereza, kuwachitira zabwino kapena kuwazunza; kaya iye ndi amene anadza pambuyo pake anapha anthu amtundu wa America ndi Caribbean kapena ayi; kaya zochita za Columbus ku America zinali zogwirizana ndi chikhalidwe cha Indigenous Peoples of America ndi Caribbean; ndipo ngati Columbus ndi amene anadza pambuyo pake analanda dziko la Indigenous Peoples of America ndi Caribbean kapena ayi kapena ayi kapena ayi kapena ayi, malo awo, miyambo, chipembedzo, machitidwe a ulamuliro, ndi chuma chawo.
Chachiwiri, mikangano yotsutsana yoti chipilala cha Columbus chikhalebe kapena kuchotsedwa chili ndi mbiri yakale ndi nthawi, komanso cholinga chokhazikitsa / kutumiza chipilalacho. Kuti timvetsetse bwino chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus ndi Columbus Circle ku New York City, ndikofunikira kuti timvetsetse tanthauzo la kukhala Mtaliyana waku America osati ku New York kokha komanso m'madera ena onse a United States mu 1892 pomwe Columbus adachita. chipilalacho chinakhazikitsidwa ndikupatsidwa ntchito. Chifukwa chiyani chipilala cha Columbus chinakhazikitsidwa ku New York City? Kodi chipilalacho chikuyimira chiyani anthu aku Italy aku America omwe adalipira ndikuchiyika? Chifukwa chiyani chipilala cha Columbus ndi Tsiku la Columbus zimatetezedwa mwamphamvu komanso mwachikondi ndi anthu aku Italy aku America? Popanda kufunafuna mafotokozedwe osawerengeka komanso ochulukirapo a mafunso awa, a anayankha John Viola (2017), pulezidenti wa National Italian American Foundation, akuyenera kuganizira motere:
Kwa anthu ambiri, kuphatikizapo anthu a ku Italy-America, chikondwerero cha Columbus chimaonedwa ngati chonyozetsa kuzunzika kwa anthu amtundu wamba m’manja mwa Azungu. Koma kwa anthu osawerengeka amdera langa, Columbus, ndi Columbus Day, akuyimira mwayi wokondwerera zomwe tapereka mdziko muno. Ngakhale anthu ambiri a ku Italy asanafike kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 19 ndi kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 20, Columbus anali munthu wotsutsana ndi Chitaliyana chomwe chinalipo panthawiyo. ( ndime 3-4 )
Zolemba pa chipilala cha Columbus ku New York City zikusonyeza kuti kukhazikitsidwa ndi kutumizidwa kwa chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus kumachokera ku njira yomwe anthu aku Italiya aku America adagwiritsa ntchito pofuna kulimbikitsa kudziwika kwawo mkati mwa mtsinje waukulu wa America ngati njira yothetsera matsoka, ziwawa komanso zowopsa. tsankho lomwe anali kukumana nalo panthawiyo. Anthu aku Italiya aku America adamva kuti akuzunzidwa ndikuzunzidwa, motero amalakalaka kuphatikizidwa munkhani yaku America. Adapeza chizindikiro cha zomwe amawona nkhani yaku America, kuphatikizidwa ndi umodzi mwa munthu wa Christopher Columbus, yemwe amakhala waku Italy. Monga Viola (2017) akufotokozeranso:
Zinali chifukwa cha kupha komvetsa chisoni kumeneku komwe anthu oyambirira a ku Italy ndi America ku New York anasonkhanitsa zopereka zapadera kuti apereke chipilala ku Columbus Circle ku mzinda wawo watsopano. Kotero fanoli lomwe tsopano likunyozedwa ngati chizindikiro cha kugonjetsedwa kwa Ulaya chinali kuyambira pachiyambi umboni wa kukonda dziko kuchokera ku gulu la anthu othawa kwawo omwe akuvutika kuti alandire nyumba yawo yatsopano, ndipo nthawi zina yankhanza ... pachiwopsezo chomwe chili pamtima pa maloto aku America, ndikuti ndi ntchito yathu monga anthu ammudzi omwe amagwirizana kwambiri ndi cholowa chake kukhala patsogolo panjira yovuta komanso yosangalatsa. (ndime 8 ndi 10)
Kugwirizana kwakukulu ndi kunyada kwa chipilala cha Columbus chomwe anthu aku Italy aku America adawonetsa zidawululidwanso ku Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and Markers pamisonkhano yawo yapagulu mu 2017. Malinga ndi lipoti la Commission (2018), "Columbus chipilala chinakhazikitsidwa mu 1892, chaka chotsatira chimodzi mwa ziwawa zotsutsana ndi Italy m'mbiri ya America: kupha anthu khumi ndi m'modzi aku Italy omwe adamasulidwa ku New Orleans "(p. 29) . Pachifukwa ichi, anthu aku Italy aku America motsogozedwa ndi National Italian American Foundation amatsutsa mwamphamvu komanso mwamphamvu kuchotsedwa / kusamutsidwa kwa chipilala cha Columbus kuchokera ku Columbus Circle. M'mawu a pulezidenti wa bungwe ili, Viola (2017), "Kuwononga mbiri yakale" sikusintha mbiri imeneyo "(para 7). Kuphatikiza apo, Viola (2017) ndi National Italian American Foundation amatsutsa kuti:
Pali zipilala zambiri za Franklin Roosevelt, ndipo ngakhale adalola kuti anthu a ku Japan-America ndi a ku Italy-America alowe m'kati mwa nkhondo yachiwiri ya padziko lonse, ife monga gulu sitikufuna kuti ziboliboli zake ziwonongeke. Komanso sitikupereka msonkho kwa Theodore Roosevelt, yemwe, mu 1891, pambuyo poti anthu 11 aku Sicilian-America omwe ananamiziridwa anaphedwa pachiwopsezo chachikulu kwambiri m'mbiri ya America, analemba kuti adaganiza kuti chochitikacho "ndichinthu chabwino kwambiri. (ndime 8)
Chachitatu, ndipo poganizira zomwe takambiranazi, kodi chipilala cha Columbus chikutanthauza chiyani masiku ano kwa anthu ambiri a ku New York omwe si anthu a ku Italy America? Christopher Columbus ndi ndani kwa Native New Yorkers ndi Amwenye aku America? Kodi kukhalapo kwa chipilala cha Columbus ku Columbus Circle ku New York City kumakhudza bwanji eni ake a New York City ndi ena ang'onoang'ono, mwachitsanzo, Achimereka/Amwenye Achimereka ndi Achiafirika Achimereka? Lipoti la Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and Markers (2018) limasonyeza kuti "Columbus akutumikira monga chikumbutso cha kuphedwa kwa Amwenye kudera lonse la America ndi kuyamba kwa malonda a akapolo kudutsa nyanja ya Atlantic" (tsamba 28).
Pamene mafunde a kusintha ndi kuvumbulutsidwa kwa choonadi chobisika, choponderezedwa ndi nkhani zosimbidwa zayamba kufalikira ku America, mamiliyoni a anthu ku North America ndi ku Caribbean ayamba kukayikira nkhani yaikulu ya, ndi kuphunzira mbiri ya Christopher Columbus. Kwa omenyera ufuluwa, nthawi yakwana yoti adziwe zomwe zidaphunzitsidwa kale m'masukulu ndi nkhani zapagulu kuti zikomere gawo limodzi la anthu aku America kuti aphunzirenso ndikulengeza poyera zowona zomwe zidabisika, zophimbidwa, ndi kuponderezedwa. Magulu ambiri omenyera ufulu wa anthu akhala akuchita njira zosiyanasiyana kuti awulule zomwe amawona kuti ndi zowona za chizindikiro cha Christopher Columbus. Mwachitsanzo, mizinda ina ya ku North America, ku Los Angeles, “yasintha mwalamulo zikondwerero zake za Tsiku la Columbus n’kuikamo Tsiku la Anthu Omwe Amakhalako” (Viola, 2017, ndime 2), ndipo ku New York City kukufunikanso chimodzimodzi. Chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus ku New York City posachedwapa chasindikizidwa chizindikiro (kapena chofiira) choimira magazi m’manja mwa Columbus ndi ofufuza anzake. Imodzi ku Baltimore akuti idawonongedwa. Ndipo yomwe ili ku Yonkers, New York, idanenedwa kuti idadulidwa mwankhanza komanso "mopanda ulemu" (Viola, 2017, para. 2). Njira zonsezi zogwiritsidwa ntchito ndi omenyera ufulu osiyanasiyana kudera lonse la America zili ndi cholinga chofanana: kuthetsa chete; vumbulutsa nkhani yobisika; nenani nkhani ya zomwe zidachitika malinga ndi momwe ozunzidwawo adawonera, ndipo funani kuti chilungamo chobwezeretsa - chomwe chimaphatikizapo kuvomereza zomwe zidachitika, kubweza kapena kubweza, ndi machiritso - zichitike tsopano osati pambuyo pake.
Chachinayi, mmene mzinda wa New York umachitira ndi mikangano imeneyi yozungulira munthu ndi fano la Christopher Columbus zidzatsimikizira ndi kufotokoza cholowa chimene Mzindawu ukusiyira anthu a New York City. Panthawi yomwe Amwenye Achimereka, kuphatikizapo anthu a Lenape ndi Algonquian, akuyesera kukonzanso, kumanganso ndi kubwezeretsa chikhalidwe chawo komanso malo awo a mbiri yakale, zimakhala zofunikira kwambiri kuti mzinda wa New York upereke ndalama zokwanira pa phunziro la chipilala chotsutsanachi, ndi chiyani? imayimira magulu osiyanasiyana, ndipo mkangano umakulitsa. Izi zithandiza kuti Mzindawu ukhazikitse njira zothanirana ndi mikangano yokhazikika komanso yosakondera kuti athane ndi nkhani za nthaka, tsankho ndi zolowa zaukapolo kuti akhazikitse njira ya chilungamo, kuyanjanitsa, kukambirana, machiritso onse, chilungamo, ndi kufanana.
Funso limene limabwera m’maganizo apa ndi lakuti: Kodi mzinda wa New York ungasungire chipilala cha Christopher Columbus pa Columbus Circle popanda kupitiriza kulemekeza “munthu wodziwika bwino amene zochita zake poyerekezera ndi Amwenye zimaimira chiyambi cha kulandidwa katundu, ukapolo, ndi kupha fuko?” (Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and Markers, 2018, p. 30). Akutsutsidwa ndi mamembala ena a Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and Markers (2018) kuti chipilala cha Columbus chikuyimira:
mchitidwe wochotsa ufuka ndi ukapolo. Okhudzidwa kwambiri amanyamula mkati mwawo nkhokwe zozama za kukumbukira ndi zochitika zomwe adakumana nazo pachipilalacho… suntha fanolo. Pofuna kutsata chilungamo, mamembala a Commission awa amazindikira kuti chilungamo chikutanthauza kuti anthu omwewo samakhala ndi nkhawa nthawi zonse, koma kuti ndi dziko logawana. Chilungamo chimatanthauza kuti kuvutika kumagawidwanso. (tsamba 30)
Ubale pakati pa chipilala cha Columbus ndi zokumbukira zomvetsa chisoni za Anthu Achimereka aku America ndi Caribbean komanso anthu aku Africa America zidzafotokozedwa bwino ndikumvetsetsa kudzera m'magalasi amalingaliro a kukumbukira mbiri yakale.
Kodi Historical Memory Theories Imatiuza Chiyani Zokhudza Chikumbutso Chovuta Kwambiri?
Kulanda anthu malo awo kapena katundu wawo ndi atsamunda si njira yamtendere koma kutheka chifukwa cha nkhanza ndi mokakamiza. Kwa Amwenye Achimereka a ku America ndi ku Caribbean omwe adawonetsa kukana kwambiri kuteteza ndi kusunga zomwe chilengedwe chinawapatsa, ndi omwe anaphedwa panthawiyi, kuwalanda malo awo ndi nkhondo. M'buku lake, Nkhondo ndi mphamvu imene imatipatsa tanthauzo, Hedges (2014) akuganiza kuti nkhondo "imayang'anira chikhalidwe, imasokoneza kukumbukira, imasokoneza chinenero, ndipo imawononga chilichonse chozungulira ... Nkhondo imasonyeza mphamvu za zoipa zomwe siziri kutali kwambiri ndi ife tonse. Ichi ndichifukwa chake kwa ambiri, nkhondo imakhala yovuta kukambirana ikatha” (p. 3). Izi zikutanthauza kuti mbiri yakale komanso zochitika zomvetsa chisoni za Anthu Achimereka a ku America ndi Caribbean zinabedwa, kuponderezedwa, ndi kutumizidwa ku chikumbukiro mpaka posachedwapa chifukwa ochita zoipawo sankafuna kuti zikumbukiro zomvetsa chisoni zoterezi zifalitsidwe.
Gulu la Amwenye kuti alowe m'malo mwa chipilala cha Columbus ndi chipilala choyimira Amwenye, komanso kufuna kwawo kuti alowe m'malo mwa Tsiku la Columbus ndi Tsiku la Amwenye, zikuwonetsa kuti mbiri yapakamwa ya ozunzidwayo ikuyamba kufotokozedwa pang'onopang'ono kuti iwunikire zowawa komanso zowawa. anapirira kwa zaka mazana ambiri. Koma kwa ochita zoipa omwe amalamulira nkhaniyo, Hedges (2014) akutsimikizira kuti: "pamene timalemekeza ndi kulira maliro athu omwe timawapha timakhala opanda chidwi ndi omwe timawapha" (p. 14). Monga taonera pamwambapa, anthu aku Italiya aku America adamanga ndikuyika chipilala cha Columbus komanso kupempha Tsiku la Columbus kuti akondwerere cholowa chawo komanso zopereka zawo ku mbiri ya America. Komabe, popeza kuti nkhanza zimene anthu a ku America ndi ku Caribbean anachitira anthu a ku America ndi ku Caribbean panthawi ndiponso pambuyo pa kubwera kwa Columbus ku America sizinayankhidwepo poyera ndi kuvomerezedwa, kodi chikondwerero cha Columbus ndi chipilala chake chokwezeka kwambiri mumzinda wamitundu yosiyanasiyana kwambiri wa ku Caribbean? dziko losapitirizira kusasamala ndi kukana kukumbukira kowawa kwa Amwenye adziko lino? Komanso, kodi pakhala kubwezeredwa kwa anthu kapena kubwezeretsa ukapolo komwe kumalumikizidwa ndi kubwera kwa Columbus ku America? Chikondwerero cha mbali imodzi kapena maphunziro a kukumbukira mbiri yakale ndizokayikitsa kwambiri.
Kwa zaka zambiri, aphunzitsi athu adangobwereza nkhani ya mbali imodzi ya kubwera kwa Christopher Columbus ku America - ndiko kuti, nkhani ya omwe ali ndi mphamvu. Nkhani yaku Eurocentric iyi yokhudzana ndi Columbus ndi zomwe adakumana nazo ku America idaphunzitsidwa m'masukulu, zolembedwa m'mabuku, zokambidwa m'magulu a anthu onse, ndipo zimagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga zisankho zapagulu popanda kuwunika mozama ndikufunsa ngati zili zowona komanso zowona. Linakhala mbali ya mbiri ya dziko lathu ndipo silinatsutsidwe. Funsani wophunzira wa pulayimale wa pulayimale yemwe anali munthu woyamba kupeza America, ndipo adzakuuzani kuti ndi Christopher Columbus. Funso ndilakuti: kodi Christopher Columbus adapeza America kapena America adamupeza? Mu "Context is Every: The Nature of Memory," Engel (1999) akufotokoza lingaliro la kukumbukira kukumbukira. Vuto lokhudzana ndi kukumbukira sikumangokumbukira ndi kufalitsa zomwe zimakumbukiridwa, koma kwakukulukulu, ndizomwe zimaperekedwa kapena kugawana ndi ena - ndiko kuti, kaya nkhani kapena nkhani - zimatsutsidwa kapena ayi; kaya zikuvomerezedwa ngati zoona kapena zikanidwa ngati zabodza. Kodi tingagwiritsirebe ntchito nkhani yakuti Christopher Columbus anali munthu woyamba kupeza America ngakhale mu 21?st zaka zana? Nanga bwanji za mbadwa za mbadwa zomwe zinali kale ku America? Kodi zikutanthauza kuti sankadziwa kuti akukhala ku America? Kodi sankadziwa kumene anali? Kapena sakuonedwa kuti ndi anthu okwanira kudziwa kuti anali ku America?
Kufufuza mwatsatanetsatane komanso mozama mbiri yakale yapakamwa ndi yolembedwa ya Indigenous Peoples of America ndi Caribbean imatsimikizira kuti anthu amtunduwu anali ndi chikhalidwe chokhazikika komanso njira zokhalira ndi kuyankhulana. Zokumana nazo zowawa za oukira a Columbus ndi pambuyo pa Columbus zimafalikira ku mibadwomibadwo. Izi zikutanthauza kuti m'magulu a Amwenye komanso ang'onoang'ono, zambiri zimakumbukiridwa ndikufalitsidwa. Monga Engel (1999) akutsimikizira, "chikumbukiro chilichonse chimakhazikika, mwanjira ina, pa zomwe zachitika mkati mwa kukumbukira. Nthawi zambiri zofotokozera zamkatizi zimakhala zolondola modabwitsa ndipo zimatipatsa chidziwitso chochuluka” (tsamba 3). Chovuta ndi kudziwa kuti "chithunzi chamkati" kapena kukumbukira kwa ndani chili cholondola. Kodi tiyenera kupitiriza kuvomereza momwe zinthu zilili - nkhani yakale, yodziwika bwino ya Columbus ndi kulimba mtima kwake? Kapena kodi tsopano titembenuzire tsambalo ndi kuwona zenizeni m’maso mwa awo amene maiko awo analandidwa mokakamiza ndi amene makolo awo anavutika ponse paŵiri kuphedwa kwa anthu ndi chikhalidwe m’manja mwa Columbus ndi anzake? Monga momwe ndingadziwonere ndekha, kukhalapo kwa chipilala cha Columbus mkati mwa Manhattan ku New York City kwadzutsa galu wogonayo kuti auwe. Tsopano tikhoza kumvetsera nkhani yosiyana kapena nkhani ya Christopher Columbus kuchokera kwa omwe makolo awo adakumana ndi iye ndi omwe adalowa m'malo mwake - Amwenye Achimereka aku America ndi Caribbean.
Kuti mumvetsetse chifukwa chake anthu amtundu waku America ndi ku Caribbean akulimbikitsa kuchotsedwa kwa chipilala cha Columbus ndi Tsiku la Columbus ndikulowa m'malo ndi Chikumbutso cha Anthu Amtundu Wachibadwidwe ndi Tsiku la Anthu Achimereka, munthu akuyenera kuwunikanso malingaliro a kuvulala kwamagulu ndi kulira. M'buku lake, Magazi. Kuyambira kunyada kwa mafuko kupita ku uchigawenga wamitundu, Volkan, (1997) akupereka chiphunzitso cha kuvulala kosankhidwa komwe kumalumikizidwa ndi maliro osathetsedwa. Kuvulala kosankhidwa malinga ndi Volkan (1997) akulongosola "kukumbukira pamodzi kwa tsoka lomwe linagwera makolo a gulu. Ndi … choposa chikumbukiro chophweka; Ndi chifaniziro chogawana m'maganizo cha zochitika, zomwe zimaphatikizapo chidziwitso chenicheni, zoyembekeza zongopeka, malingaliro amphamvu, ndi chitetezo ku malingaliro osavomerezeka" (p. 48). Kungozindikira mawuwo, osankhidwa zoopsa, akusonyeza kuti mamembala amagulu monga Anthu Omwe Amwenye Amwenye Achimereka ku America ndi Caribbean kapena Achiafirika Achimereka anasankha mofunitsitsa zokumana nazo zowawa zomwe anakumana nazo m’manja mwa ofufuza a ku Ulaya monga Christopher Columbus. Zikanakhala choncho, ndiye kuti sindingagwirizane ndi wolembayo chifukwa sitisankha tokha zochitika zomvetsa chisoni zomwe zimatichitikira ife kudzera mutsoka lachilengedwe kapena masoka opangidwa ndi anthu. Koma nkhani ya osankhidwa zoopsa monga momwe mlembi adafotokozera "zikuwonetsa gulu lalikulu lomwe limadziwikiratu mosadziwa chifukwa cha kufalikira kwa anthu ovulala omwe amalowetsedwa ndi kukumbukira zoopsa za makolo" (tsamba 48).
Kuyankha kwathu pazochitika zowawa ndi zodzidzimutsa ndipo nthawi zambiri, sitikudziwa. Nthawi zambiri, timayankha molira, ndipo Volkan (1997) amatchula mitundu iwiri ya maliro – mavuto chisoni chimene chiri chisoni kapena ululu umene timamva, ndi ntchito yamaliro yomwe ndi njira yozama yomvetsetsa zomwe zidatichitikira - kukumbukira kwathu mbiri yakale. Nthawi yamaliro ndi nthawi yochira, ndipo kuchira kumatenga nthawi. Komabe, zovuta panthawiyi zimatha kutsegulanso bala. Kukhalapo kwa chipilala cha Columbus mkati mwa Manhattan, New York City ndi m'mizinda ina kudutsa United States komanso chikondwerero chapachaka cha Columbus Day kumatsegulanso mabala ndi kuvulala, zowawa ndi zowawa zomwe zimachitikira Amwenye / Amwenye ndi Afirika. akapolo a adani a ku Europe ku America motsogozedwa ndi Christopher Columbus. Kuti atsogolere ntchito yochiritsa pamodzi ya Anthu Achimereka a ku America ndi ku Caribbean, akufunidwa kuti chipilala cha Columbus chichotsedwe ndi kusinthidwa ndi Chipilala cha Anthu Achimidzi; ndi kuti Tsiku la Columbus lilowe m'malo ndi Tsiku la Anthu Achilengedwe.
Monga momwe Volkan (1997) akunenera, maliro oyambilira amaphatikiza miyambo - chikhalidwe kapena chipembedzo - kuti amvetsetse zomwe zachitika ku gulu. Njira imodzi yokhalira kulira pamodzi ndi kukumbukira zomwe Volkan (1997) amachitcha kulumikiza zinthu. Kugwirizanitsa zinthu kumathandiza kuchepetsa kukumbukira. Volkan (1997) akunena kuti "kumanga zipilala pambuyo pa kutayika kwakukulu kuli ndi malo akeake pamaliro a anthu; zochita zotere zimakhala zofunika kwambiri m'maganizo” (tsamba 40). Kaya kudzera m’zikumbukiro zimenezi kapena mbiri yakale yongolankhula, chikumbukiro cha zimene zinachitika chimaperekedwa kwa mbadwo wamtsogolo. "Chifukwa chakuti zithunzithunzi zopwetekedwa zomwe zimaperekedwa ndi mamembala a gulu lonse zimanena za tsoka lomwelo, amakhala mbali ya gulu, chizindikiro cha fuko pansalu ya chihema cha mafuko" (Volkan, 1997, p. 45). M'malingaliro a Volkan (1997), "kukumbukira zowawa zakale kumakhalabe kwanthawi yayitali kwa mibadwo ingapo, kusungidwa mkati mwa DNA yamalingaliro a mamembala a gululo ndikuvomerezedwa mwakachetechete mu chikhalidwe - m'mabuku ndi zaluso, mwachitsanzo - koma zimayambiranso mwamphamvu. pokhapokha pazifukwa zina” (tsamba 47). Amwenye a ku America/Amwenye Achimereka mwachitsanzo sadzaiwala kuonongedwa kwa makolo awo, zikhalidwe, ndi kulanda maiko awo mwamphamvu. Chilichonse cholumikizira monga chipilala kapena chiboliboli cha Christopher Columbus chidzapangitsa kukumbukira kwawo kuphana kwa anthu ndi chikhalidwe m'manja mwa adani aku Europe. Izi zingayambitse kupwetekedwa mtima pakati pa mibadwo yambiri kapena post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Kuchotsa chipilala cha Columbus ndi Chipilala cha Anthu Achimereka mbali imodzi ndikusintha Tsiku la Columbus ndi Tsiku la Anthu Achimereka kumbali inayo, sikungothandiza kunena zoona zenizeni za zomwe zinachitika; chofunika kwambiri, kusonyeza moona mtima ndi kophiphiritsa koteroko kudzakhala chiyambi cha kubwezera, kulira pamodzi ndi machiritso, chikhululukiro, ndi kukambirana kolimbikitsa pagulu.
Ngati mamembala omwe ali ndi chikumbukiro chofanana cha tsoka sangathe kugonjetsa malingaliro awo opanda mphamvu ndikukhala odzidalira, ndiye kuti adzakhalabe mumkhalidwe wozunzidwa ndi wopanda mphamvu. Pofuna kuthana ndi kuvulala kwamagulu, kotero, pakufunika ndondomeko ndi machitidwe a zomwe Volkan (1997) amachitcha kuti enveloping ndi kunja. Magulu opwetekedwa mtima ayenera "kuphimba mawonetseredwe awo okhumudwa (omangidwa) (zithunzi) ndi kuwatulutsa kunja ndi kuwalamulira kunja kwa iwo okha" (p. 42). Njira yabwino yochitira izi ndi zikumbutso zapagulu, zipilala, malo ena okumbukira mbiri yakale ndikukambirana nawo pagulu popanda kuchita manyazi. Kutumiza Chipilala cha Anthu Achimereka ndi kukondwerera Tsiku la Amwenye Chaka chilichonse kudzathandiza Amwenye Achimereka aku America ndi ku Caribbean kuti atulutse zowawa zawo m'malo moziyika m'malo nthawi iliyonse akawona chipilala cha Columbus chitayima pakatikati pa mizinda yaku America.
Ngati zomwe anthu a ku America ndi ku Caribbean akufuna kufotokozedwa ndi lingaliro la Volkan (1997) la kuvulala kosankhidwa, zingatheke bwanji kuti ofufuza a ku Ulaya omwe akuimiridwa ndi Christopher Columbus yemwe chipilala chake ndi cholowa chake chimayang'aniridwa mwachidwi ndi anthu a ku Italy America. anamvetsa? Mu chaputala XNUMX cha buku lake, Magazi. Kuyambira kunyada kwa mafuko kupita ku uchigawenga wamitundu, Volkan, (1997) amafufuza chiphunzitso cha "chosen ulemerero - we-ness: identification and shared reservoirs." Lingaliro la “ulemerero wosankhidwa” monga momwe Volkan (1997) linafotokozera, limafotokoza “chizindikiro chamaganizo cha chochitika cha m’mbiri chimene chimasonkhezera malingaliro a chipambano ndi chipambano” [ndipo] “chikhoza kubweretsa mamembala a gulu lalikulu pamodzi” (tsamba 81) . Kwa anthu aku Italy aku America, maulendo a Christopher Columbus kupita ku America ndi zonse zomwe adabwera nazo ndizochitika zamphamvu zomwe anthu a ku Italy ayenera kunyadira. Pa nthawi ya Christopher Columbus monga momwe zinalili pamene chipilala cha Columbus chinatumizidwa ku Columbus Circle ku New York City, Christopher Columbus anali chizindikiro cha ulemu, ungwazi, kupambana, ndi kupambana komanso chithunzithunzi cha nkhani ya ku America. Koma mavumbulutsidwe a zochita zake ku America ndi mbadwa za omwe adakumana naye adawonetsa Columbus ngati chizindikiro cha kuphana ndi kuchotsera anthu. Malingana ndi Volkan (1997), "Zochitika zina zomwe poyamba zingawoneke ngati kupambana pambuyo pake zimawonedwa ngati zochititsa manyazi. 'Kupambana' kwa Nazi Germany, mwachitsanzo, mibadwo yambiri yotsatira ya Germany idawonedwa ngati yachiwembu” (tsamba 82).
Koma, kodi pakhala kutsutsidwa pamodzi pakati pa anthu aku Italy aku America - osunga Tsiku la Columbus ndi chipilala - chifukwa cha momwe Columbus ndi omlowa m'malo ake adachitira ndi Amwenye / Amwenye ku America? Zikuwoneka kuti anthu aku Italiya aku America adapanga chipilala cha Columbus osati kungosunga cholowa cha Columbus, koma chofunikira kwambiri kuti akweze mbiri yawo m'magulu akuluakulu aku America ndikuchigwiritsa ntchito ngati njira yodziphatikiza ndikutenga malo awo mkati. nkhani yaku America. Volkan (1997) akufotokoza bwino ponena kuti “ulemerero wosankhidwa umakonzedwanso ngati njira yolimbikitsira kudzidalira kwa gulu. Mofanana ndi zowawa zomwe zasankhidwa, zimakhala zongopeka kwambiri pakapita nthawi” (tsamba 82). Izi ndi momwe zilili ndi chipilala cha Columbus ndi Tsiku la Columbus.
Kutsiliza
Kulingalira kwanga pachipilala cha Columbus, ngakhale mwatsatanetsatane, ndikochepa pazifukwa zingapo. Kumvetsetsa mbiri yakale yokhudzana ndi kubwera kwa Columbus ku America ndi zochitika za anthu amtundu wa America ndi Caribbean panthawiyo zimafuna nthawi yochuluka ndi zofufuza. Izi ndikhoza kukhala nazo ngati ndikukonzekera kuwonjezera pa kafukufukuyu mtsogolomu. Poganizira zolephera izi, nkhani iyi idapangidwa kuti izindithandizira paulendo wanga wopita ku chipilala cha Columbus ku Columbus Circle ku New York City kuti ndiyambe kuwunikira mozama pachipilala ndi mutu womwe ukuyambitsa mikangano.
Ziwonetsero, zopempha, komanso kuyitanitsa kuchotsedwa kwa chipilala cha Columbus komanso kuthetsedwa kwa Tsiku la Columbus posachedwapa zikuwonetsa kufunikira kowunikira mozama pamutuwu. Monga momwe nkhani yowunikirayi yawonetsera, gulu la anthu aku Italy aku America - osunga chipilala cha Columbus ndi Tsiku la Columbus - akufuna kuti cholowa cha Columbus chomwe chafotokozedwa m'nkhani yayikulu chisungidwe momwe ziliri. Komabe, gulu lochirikiza Indigenous Peoples Movements likufuna kuti chipilala cha Columbus chilowe m’malo ndi Chipilala cha Anthu Omwe Achimwenye Chake ndi Tsiku la Columbus chilowe m’malo ndi Tsiku la Anthu Omwe Limakhalapo. Kusagwirizana uku, malinga ndi lipoti la Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and Markers (2018), kumakhazikika mu "nthawi zonse zinayi zomwe zikuganiziridwa pakuwunika kwa chipilalachi: moyo wa Christopher Columbus, cholinga nthawi ya kukhazikitsidwa kwa chipilalachi, zotsatira zake ndi tanthauzo lake, komanso cholowa chake chamtsogolo” (tsamba 28).
Mosiyana ndi nkhani yayikulu yomwe tsopano ikutsutsidwa (Engel, 1999), zawululidwa kuti Christopher Columbus ndi chizindikiro cha kupha anthu komanso chikhalidwe cha Amwenye / Amwenye ku America. Kuchotsa anthu amtundu waku America ndi Caribbean maiko ndi chikhalidwe chawo sikunali kuchita mwamtendere; chinali mchitidwe waukali ndi nkhondo. Ndi nkhondoyi, chikhalidwe chawo, kukumbukira, chinenero ndi zonse zomwe anali nazo zinali zolamulidwa, zopotoka, zowonongeka, ndi kachilombo (Hedges, 2014). Chifukwa chake ndikofunikira kuti iwo omwe ali ndi "maliro osathetsedwa," - zomwe Volkan (1997) amachitcha "chovulala chosankhidwa" - apatsidwe malo achisoni, kulira, kutulutsa kuvulala kwawo kopitilira muyeso, ndikuchiritsidwa. Zili choncho chifukwa “kumanga zipilala pambuyo pa kutayika kwakukulu kuli ndi malo akeake a maliro a anthu; zochita zotere zimakhala zofunika kwambiri m'maganizo" (Volkan (1997, p. 40).
The 21st zaka zana si nthawi yodzitamandira m'mbuyomu zinthu zopanda umunthu, zonyansa zamphamvu. Ndi nthawi yobwezera, machiritso, kukambirana moona mtima ndi momasuka, kuvomereza, kupatsa mphamvu ndi kukonza zinthu. Ndikukhulupirira kuti izi ndizotheka ku New York City komanso m'mizinda ina kudera la America.
Zothandizira
Engel, S. (1999). Nkhani ndi chilichonse: Chikhalidwe cha kukumbukira. New York, NY: WH Freeman ndi Company.
Hedges, C. (2014). Nkhondo ndi mphamvu imene imatipatsa tanthauzo. New York, NY: Public Affairs.
Mayoral Advisory Commission on City Art, Monuments, and Markers. (2018). Nenani ku mzindawu ya New York. Yabwezedwa kuchokera ku https://www1.nyc.gov/site/monuments/index.page
New York City Department of Parks & Recreation. (ndi). Christopher Columbus. Idabwezedwa pa Seputembara 3, 2018 kuchokera ku https://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/columbus-park/monuments/298.
Ofesi ya Meya. (2017, Seputembara 8). Meya a de Blasio amasankha komiti ya upangiri wa mayor pa zojambulajambula za mzinda, zipilala ndi zolembera. Kuchokera ku https://www1.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/582-17/mayor-de-blasio-names-mayoral-advisory-commission-city-art-monuments-markers
Stone, S., Patton, B., & Heen, S. (2010). Kukambilana kovuta: Momwe mungakambilane zofunika kwambiri. New York, NY: Mabuku a Penguin.
Viola, JM (2017, October 9). Kugwetsa ziboliboli za Columbus kumawononganso mbiri yanga. Kuchotsedwa ku https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/09/opinion/christopher-columbus-day-statue.html
Volkan, V. (1997). Magazi. Kuchokera kunyada kwa mafuko kupita ku uchigawenga wamitundu. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Basil Ugorji, Ph.D. ndi Purezidenti ndi CEO wa International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation, New York. Pepala ili linaperekedwa koyamba ku ofesi Peace and Conflict Studies Journal Conference, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
