Xiriirka ka dhexeeya Qowmiyadaha-Diinta iyo Kobaca dhaqaalaha: Falanqaynta Suugaanta Aqoonyahanka
aan la taaban karin,
Cilmi-baadhistan ayaa ka warbixisay falanqaynta cilmi-baadhisyo cilmi-baadhiseed oo diiradda lagu saarayo xidhiidhka ka dhexeeya khilaafka qowmiyadaha iyo diinta iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha. Warqaddu waxay ku wargelinaysaa ka-qaybgalayaasha shirka, barayaasha, hoggaamiyeyaasha ganacsiga, iyo xubnaha bulshada wixii ku saabsan suugaanta cilmiyeed iyo habka cilmi-baarista ee loo isticmaalo qiimeynta xiriirka ka dhexeeya qowmiyad-diineed iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha. Habka loo adeegsaday cilmi-baadhistan waxa uu ahaa qiimayn lagu sameeyay cilmi-baadhisyo, maqaallo-jaraale oo ay asaagii dib u eegeen kuwaas oo diiradda saarayay colaadda qawmiyadaha-diimeed iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha. Suugaanta cilmi baarista waxaa laga soo doortay aqoonyahanka, keydka macluumaadka khadka tooska ah iyo dhammaan maqaallada waa inay buuxiyaan shuruudaha dib-u-eegis lagu sameeyo. Mid kasta oo ka mid ah maqaallada waxaa lagu qiimeeyay iyadoo loo eegayo xogta iyo/ama doorsoomayaasha ay ku jiraan iskahorimaadka, saameynta dhaqaalaha, habka loo isticmaalo falanqaynta xiriirka ka dhexeeya khilaafka qowmiyadaha iyo dhaqaalaha, iyo qaabka aragtida. Maadaama kobaca dhaqaaluhu uu muhiim u yahay qorshaynta dhaqaalaha iyo horumarinta siyaasadda, falanqaynta suugaanta cilmi-nafsiyeedka ayaa geeddi-socodkan si gaar ah u taabanaysa. Isku dhacyada iyo kharashaadka ku baxa iskahorimaadyadani waxay saameeyaan kobaca dhaqaale ee dunida soo koraysa, waxaana lagu bartaa dalal iyo duruufo kala duwan, oo ay ku jiraan bulshooyinka soogalootiga Shiinaha, Shiinaha-Pakistan, Pakistan, India iyo Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Israel, colaadaha Osh, NATO. tahriib, isir iyo dagaal sokeeye, iyo dagaal iyo suuqa saamiyada. Warqadani waxay soo bandhigaysaa qaabka qiimaynta maqaallada joornaalka cilmiyeed ee ku saabsan xidhiidhka ka dhexeeya iskahorimaadka qowmiyadeed iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha ee ku saabsan jihada xidhiidhka. Intaa waxa dheer, waxa ay bixinaysaa qaab lagu qiimaynayo xidhiidhka ka dhexeeya qoomiyad-diimeed colaadda iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha. Afar qaybood ayaa tilmaamaya dalal gaar ah ujeeddooyinka cilmi-baaristan.
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Tixraac la soo jeediyay:
Kominkiewicz, FB (2022). Xidhiidhka ka dhexeeya khilaafka qawmiyada-diimeed iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha: Falanqaynta suugaanta aqoonyahanka. Wargeyska Wada-noolaanshaha, 7(1), 38-57.
Macluumaadka Maqaalka:
@Maqaal{Kominkiewicz2022}
Ciwaanka = {Xiriirka ka dhexeeya Qowmiyadaha-Diinta iyo Kobaca Dhaqaalaha: Falanqaynta Suugaanta Aqoonyahanka}
Qore = {France Bernard Kominkiewicz}
Url = {https://icermediation.org/relationship-between-ethno-religious-conflict-and-economic-growth-analysis-of-the-scholarly-literature/}
ISSN = {2373-6615 (Daabac); 2373-6631 (online)}
Sannad = {2022}
Taariikh = {2022-12-18}
Joornaal = {Joornaalka Wada-noolaanshaha}
Mugga = {7}
Number = {1}
Bogagga = {38-57}
Daabace = {Xarunta Caalamiga ah ee Dhexdhexaadinta Qowmiyadaha-Diinta}
Cinwaanka = {Phite Plains, New York}
Daabacaad = {2022}.
Hordhac
Muhiimadda ay leedahay in la barto xiriirka ka dhexeeya khilaafka qowmiyadaha iyo diinta iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha waa mid aan muran lahayn. Haysashada aqoontan ayaa muhiim u ah la shaqaynta dadweynaha si ay u saamayso nabad-dhisidda. Isku dhaca waxa loo arkaa "xoog qaabaynaya dhaqaalaha caalamka" (Ghadar, 2006, p. 15). Isku dhacyada qoomiyad ama diineed waxa loo tixgaliyaa inay yihiin sifada muhiimka ah ee iskahorimaadyada gudaha ee wadamada soo koraya laakiin aad bay u adag yihiin in loo barto sida isku dhac diimeed ama qoomiyad (Kim, 2009). Saamaynta kobaca dhaqaalaha ayaa muhiim u ah in la qiimeeyo si horay loogu socdo dhismaha nabadda. Saamaynta colaaddu ku leedahay raasamaalka iyo wax-soo-saarka, iyo kharashka dhaqaale ee dagaalka dhabta ah, waxa ay noqon kartaa diiradda bilowga ah ee ay raacdo isbeddel kasta oo ku yimaadda deegaanka dhaqaale ee ay colaaddu keento oo saamayn karta saamaynta dhaqaale ee colaaddu ku leedahay horumarka waddan. Schein, 2017). Qiimaynta arrimahan ayaa muhiimad weyn u leh go'aaminta saamaynta dhaqaalaha marka loo eego haddii waddanku ku guulaysto ama laga adkaado colaadaha (Schein, 2017). Mar walba sax ma aha in ku guuleysiga colaaddu ay keeni karto isbeddello wanaagsan oo ku yimaada deegaanka dhaqaalaha, iyo luminta iskahorimaadku waxay keenaysaa saameyn taban oo ku saabsan deegaanka dhaqaalaha (Schein, 2017). Isku dhac waa lagu guuleysan karaa, laakiin haddii isku dhacu uu saameyn taban ku yeesho deegaanka dhaqaalaha, waxaa laga yaabaa in dhaqaalaha uu waxyeelo gaaro (Schein, 2017). Waayida khilaafku waxay horseedi kartaa horumar xagga dhaqaalaha ah, sidaas darteed horumarka dalka waxaa gacan ka geysta colaadda (Schein, 2017).
Kooxo tiro badan oo isu arka inay yihiin xubno ka tirsan dhaqan guud, hadday yihiin diin ama isir, ayaa laga yaabaa inay ku lug yeeshaan iskahorimaad si ay u sii wadaan is-xukunkaas (Swart, 2002). Saamaynta dhaqaale ayaa ka muuqata odhaahda ah in colaadda iyo dagaaladu ay saameeyaan qaybinta dadweynaha (Warsame & Wilhelmsson, 2019). Dhibaato qaxooti oo weyn oo ka dhacday wadamada dhaqaalahoodu si fudud u jabo sida Tunisia, Urdun, Lubnaan, iyo Jabuuti waxaa sababay dagaalada sokeeye ee Ciraaq, Liibiya, Yemen iyo Suuriya (Karam & Zaki, 2016).
Mabaadi'da
Si loo qiimeeyo saamaynta isku dhacyada qoomiyad-diimeedku ku yeelanayaan kobaca dhaqaalaha, waxa la bilaabay falanqaynta suugaanta cilmiyeed ee jirta kuwaas oo diiradda saaraya erey-bixintan. Maqaallada ayaa la helay kuwaas oo ka hadlaya doorsoomayaasha sida argagixisada, dagaalka ka dhanka ah argagixisada, iyo iskahorimaadyada dalal gaar ah oo lala xiriiriyo colaadaha qowmiyadaha iyo diinta, kaliya kuwa maqaallada joornaalka ee ay cilmi-wadaaga ah dib u eegeen ee ka hadlayay xiriirka qowmiyadaha iyo / ama khilaafka diinta iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha. oo lagu daray falanqaynta suugaanta cilmi-baarista.
Barashada saamaynta dhaqaale ee arrimaha qowmiyadaha-diimeed waxay noqon kartaa hawl aad u culus marka la eego in ay jiraan suugaan badan oo ka hadlaysa arrimahan. Dib u eegista tirada badan ee cilmi-baarista mawduuca way ku adag tahay cilmi-baarayaasha baranaya suugaanta (Bellefontaine & Lee, 2014; Glass, 1977; Light & Smith, 1971). Falanqayntan waxaa loo qaabeeyey si ay wax uga qabato su'aasha cilmi-baarista ee xiriirka qowmiyadaha iyo/ama iskahorimaadka diimeed ee kobaca dhaqaalaha iyada oo loo marayo doorsoomayaal la aqoonsaday. Cilmi-baarista dib loo eegay waxaa ku jiray habab kala duwan, oo ay ku jiraan tayada, tirooyinka, iyo hababka isku dhafan (tayo iyo tiro).
Isticmaalka Xogta Cilmi-baarista ee onlaynka ah
Xogta cilmi-baarista ee khadka tooska ah ee laga heli karo maktabadda akadeemiyadeed ee qoraaga ayaa loo adeegsaday raadinta si loo helo cilmi-baarisyo la xiriira, maqaallada joornaalka ee asxaabtu dib u eegeen. Marka la samaynayo raadinta suugaanta, xaddidaadda "Scholarly (Peer-Reviewed) Journals" ayaa la isticmaalay. Sababo la xiriira dhinacyada kala duwan ee edbinta iyo isku dhafka ah ee isku dhacyada qowmiyadaha iyo diinta iyo kobaca dhaqaalaha, xog badan oo kala duwan oo internetka ah ayaa la baadhay. Xogta online-ka ah ee la baadhay waxa ka mid ahaa, laakiin aan ku xaddidnayn, kuwan:
- Raadinta Tacliinta Ultimate
- Ameerika: Taariikh iyo Nolol Qoraal Buuxa
- Ururka Antiquarian Society (AAS) Ururinta Xilliyada Taariikhiga ah: Taxanaha 1
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Qeexida Isbeddellada
Saamaynta dhaqaale ee iskahorimaadka qawmiyad-diimeedku wuxuu ku baaqayaa qeexitaanno doorsoomayaal lagu sheegay dib u eegista suugaanta cilmi-baarista. Sida Ghadar (2006) u sheegay, "Qeexida isku dhaca lafteedu waa is beddeleysaa iyadoo dhacdooyinka iskahorimaadyada caalamiga ah ay sii yaraanayaan halka dhacdooyinka dagaalka sokeeye iyo argagixisadu ay kordheen" (bogga 15). Erayada raadinta waxaa lagu qeexaa doorsoomayaasha, sidaas darteed qeexida ereyada raadinta ayaa muhiim u ah dib u eegista suugaanta. Dib u eegista suugaanta, qeexitaan guud oo ah "isku dhaca qowmiyadaha-diimeed" iyo "kobaca dhaqaalaha" lama heli karo per se oo leh ereyadaas saxda ah, laakiin waxaa la adeegsaday erayo kala duwan oo laga yaabo inay tilmaamayaan macne isku mid ah ama la mid ah. Erayada raadinta ee ugu horrayn loo adeegsaday helidda suugaanta waxa ka mid ahaa "Qowmiyad", "Qowmiyad", "Diin", "Din", "dhaqaale", "dhaqaale", iyo "isku dhac". Kuwan waxaa lagu dhex daray siyaalo kala duwan iyo ereyo raadin kale sida ereyada Boolean ee kaydka xogta.
Sida laga soo xigtay Oxford English Dictionary Online, "ethno-" waxaa lagu qeexaa sida kuwan soo socda oo leh " duugoobay", "archaic", iyo "nadir" kala soocista laga saaray ujeedooyinka cilmi baaristan: "Waxaa loo adeegsaday erayada la xiriira daraasaadka dadyowga ama dhaqamada , horgale u ah (a) isku darka foomamka (sida ethnography n., ethnology n., iwm.), iyo (b) magacyada (sida ethnobotany n., ethnopsychology n., iwm.), ama derivatives kuwaas" ( Oxford English Dictionary , 2019e). "Qowmiyad" ayaa lagu qeexay sharraxaadahan, mar kale meesha ka saaraya kala soocida aan la isticmaalin guud ahaan, "magac ahaan: asal ahaan iyo asal ahaan. Taariikhda Giriigii Hore. Eray tilmaamaya dhalasho ama meesha uu ka yimid”; iyo “asalkii Maraykanka Xubin ka mid ah koox ama koox hoosaad loo arko inay ugu dambeyntii ka soo jeedaan, ama leh caado qaran ama mid dhaqameed; jaceyl xubin ka tirsan qowmiyadaha tirada yar.” Sife ahaan, "qowmiyad" waxaa lagu qeexaa "asal ahaan Taariikhda Giriigii Hore. Eray ka mid ah: oo tilmaamaya dhalasho ama meesha uu ka yimid”; iyo "Asal ahaan: ama la xidhiidha dadyowga marka la eego (dhab ah ama la dareemay) faracooda guud. Hadda sida caadiga ah: ee ama la xidhiidha asalka ama dhaqanka qaranka ama dhaqanka"; Magacaabida ama la xidhiidha xidhiidhka ka dhexeeya kooxaha kala duwan ee dadwaynaha dal ama gobol, esp. meesha colaad ama colaadi ka jirto; ka dhaca ama ka dhex jira kooxaha noocaas ah, qowmiyadaha dhexdooda”; "Koox dadweyne: loo tixgaliyo inay leeyihiin isir guud, ama dhaqan qaran ama dhaqan guud"; "Qoritaanka ama la xidhiidha fanka, muusiga, lebbiska, ama qaybaha kale ee dhaqameed ee sifo gaar ah (esp. aan reer galbeedka ahayn) koox dhaqameed ama koox dhaqameed; loo qaabeeyey ama lagu daray walxahan. Sidaa darteed: (af-yaqaan) shisheeye, qalaad"; Magacaabidda ama la xidhiidha koox-hoosaad dadweyne (oo ku dhex jira koox qaran ama koox dhaqameed) oo loo arko inay leeyihiin asal ama caado qaran ama dhaqameed. Maraykanka mararka qaarkood mucaawino magacaabista xubnaha kooxaha laga tirada badan yahay ee aan madowga ahayn. Hadda inta badan la tixgeliyo weerar”; "Aqoonsiga asalka ama aqoonsiga qarameed ee dhalashada ama faraca halkii laga ahaan lahaa dhalashada hadda" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019d).
Cilmi-baadhis ku saabsan sida doorsoomiyaha, "diinta", ugu lug leeyahay iskahorimaadyada rabshadaha wata ayaa la is weydiinayaa afar sababood (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Arrinka ugu horreeya ayaa ah in ay jiraan caqabado lagu kala dooranayo aragtiyaha isku dayaya in ay sharxaan isku dhacyada rabshadaha wata (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Arrinta labaad, dhibaatooyinku waxay ka yimaadeen xuduudo qeexitaan oo kala duwan oo khuseeya rabshadaha iyo isku dhaca (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Ilaa 1990-meeyadii, dagaalka iyo iskahorimaadyada rabshadaha caalamiga ah waxay ugu horreyn ku jireen mowduuca xiriirka caalamiga ah iyo amniga iyo daraasaadka istiraatijiyadeed inkastoo iskahorimaadyada rabshadaha wata ee dawlad-goboleedyada ay aad u kordheen wixii ka dambeeyay 1960-yadii (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Arrinka saddexaad waxa uu la xidhiidha qaab-dhismeedka isbeddelaya ee khuseeya welwelka caalamiga ah ee rabshadaha adduunka iyo dabeecadda isbeddelka ah ee iskahorimaadyada hubaysan ee hadda (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Arrinka ugu dambeeya waxa uu tilmaamayaa baahida loo qabo in la kala saaro noocyada sababa mar haddii colaadda gacan ka hadalka ahi ay ka kooban tahay qaybo badan oo kala duwan oo isku xidhan, isbeddelaya, oo ay ka dhasheen arrimo badan (Cederman & Gleditsch, 2009; Dixon, 2009; Duyvesteyn, 2000; Feliu & Grasa, 2013; Themnér & Wallensteen, 2012).
Erayga “diimeed” waxa lagu qeexaa sifada erayadan oo aan si guud loo isticmaalin laga saaray: “Qof ama koox dad ah: ku xidhan nidar diin; ka tirsana amar monastic ah, esp. Kaniisadda Katooliga ee Roomaanka”; "Wax, meel, iwm.: lahaanshaha ama ku xiran amar monastic; monastik"; "Madaxa qofka: diinta u heellan; muujinta saamaynta ruuxiga ah ama ficilka ah ee diinta, iyadoo la raacayo shuruudaha diinta; mid cibaado leh, oo cibaado leh, oo cibaado leh; "Ku saabsan, la xidhiidha, ama ay khusayso diinta" iyo "Damiir leh, sax ah, adag, damiir leh. Marka la qeexayo "diimeed" magac ahaan, soocida isticmaalka guud ee soo socda ayaa lagu daray: "Dadka ku xiran nidarka monastic ama u heellan nolol diimeed, esp. Kaniisadda Katooliga ee Roomaanka" iyo "Qofka ku xidhan nidar diimeed ama u go'ay nolol diimeed, esp. Kaniisadda Katooliga Romanka" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019g).
"Diinta" waxaa lagu qeexaa, oo ay ku jiraan kala soocida isticmaalka guud, sida " Xaalad nololeed oo ku xiran nidar diimeed; shuruuda ka mid ahaanshaha amar diimeed; "Ficilka ama habdhaqanka muujinaya rumaynta, addeecida, iyo ixtiraamka ilaahyada, ilaahyada, ama awooda la midka ah ee bini'aadminimada ka saraysa; gudashada cibaado ama cibaado diini ah” marka lagu daro “Rumaynta ama qirashada awood ama awoodo ka sareeya biniaadminimada aaminsanaanta sida qayb ka mid ah nidaamka qeexaya xeerka nolosha, esp. si loo gaaro horumar xagga ruuxa ama maadiga ah”; iyo "Nidaam gaar ah oo iimaanka iyo cibaadada" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019f). Qeexitaan dambe ayaa lagu dabaqay raadinta suugaanta.
Erayada raadinta, "dhaqaalaha" iyo "dhaqaale" ayaa loo adeegsaday raadinta xogta macluumaadka. Erayga, "dhaqaale", waxa uu ilaalinayaa kow iyo toban (11) qeexitaan oo ku jira Qaamuuska Ingiriisiga Oxford (2019c). Qeexida ku habboon ee lagu dabaqi karo falanqayntan waa sidan soo socota: “Ururka ama xaaladda bulsho ama ummad marka la eego arrimaha dhaqaalaha, esp. wax soo saarka iyo isticmaalka alaabta iyo adeegyada iyo bixinta lacagta (hadda inta badan leh ka; (sidoo kale) nidaam dhaqaale oo gaar ah" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019). Marka laga hadlayo ereyga, "dhaqaale", qeexitaankan soo socda ayaa loo adeegsaday raadinta maqaallada khuseeya: "Ku saabsan, la xidhiidha, ama khusaysa sayniska dhaqaalaha ama guud ahaan dhaqaalaha" iyo "la xidhiidha horumarinta iyo nidaaminta khayraadka maadiga ah ee bulsho ama dawlad" ( Qaamuuska Ingiriisiga Oxford, 2019b).
Erayada, "isbeddelka dhaqaalaha", oo tixraacaya isbeddello tiro yar oo dhaqaale ah, iyo "isbeddel dhaqaale", oo tilmaamaya isbeddel weyn oo nooc kasta ah/nooc kasta oo ah dhaqaale gebi ahaanba ka duwan, ayaa sidoo kale loo tixgeliyey inay yihiin ereyo raadinta ee cilmi-baarista (Cottey, 2018, bogga 215). Marka la dabaqo shuruudahan, wax ku biirinta ayaa lagu soo daray kuwaas oo aan inta badan lagu tirin dhaqaalaha (Cottey, 2018).
Waxaa lagu tixgaliyay cilmi baaristan iyadoo la adeegsanayo erayada raadinta waxay ahaayeen kharashyada tooska ah iyo kuwa aan tooska ahayn ee dhaqaale ee isku dhaca. Kharashaadka tooska ah waa kharash isla markiiba lagu dabaqi karo iskahorimaadka oo ay ka mid yihiin waxyeellada loo geysto bini'aadamka, daryeelka iyo dib u dejinta shakhsiyaadka barokacay, burburinta iyo dhaawaca agabka jireed, iyo kharashaadka sare ee ciidamada iyo amniga gudaha (Mutlu, 2011). Kharashaadka aan tooska ahayn waxaa loola jeedaa cawaaqibka ka dhalan kara iskahorimaadka sida khasaaraha raasamaal ee dhimashada ama dhaawaca, luminta dakhliga ka dhashay maal-gashi la dhaafay, duullimaad raasumaal, hijrada shaqaale xirfad leh, luminta maalgashiga shisheeye iyo dakhliga dalxiiska ee suurtagalka ah (Mutlu, 2011) ). Shakhsiyaadka ku lugta leh iskahorimaadku waxay sidoo kale la kulmi karaan khasaarooyin ka yimaada walaac maskaxeed iyo dhaawac iyo sidoo kale joojinta waxbarashada (Mutlu, 2011). Tani waxaa lagu arkay Hamber and Gallagher (2014) cilmi baaris lagu ogaaday in ragga da'da yar ee Waqooyiga Ireland ay la yimaadeen arrimaha caafimaadka bulshada iyo maskaxda, iyo in tirada ka warbixisa is-waxyeelaynta, la kulma fikradaha isdilka, ku lug lahaanshiyaha khatarta ah inay qaadaan dabeecad ama isku day isdil. wuxuu ahaa "qeylo dhaan" (bogga 52). Sida laga soo xigtay ka qaybgalayaashu, dabeecadahaan la soo sheegay waxay ka dhasheen "niyad-jab, walbahaar, walaac, qabatinnimo, qiime la'aan la dareemo, isku kalsooni hoose, rajo la'aan nololeed, dareemo dayacan, rajo la'aan, rajo-beel iyo hanjabaad iyo cabsida weerarrada militariga" (Hamber & Gallagher , 2014, bogga 52).
"Colaad" waxaa lagu qeexaa sida "la kulanka hubka; dagaal, dagaal”; "halgan daba dheeraaday"; dagaal, hub, dagaal dagaal”; "halgan maskaxeed ama ruuxi ah oo ninka dhexdiisa ah"; "isku dhaca ama kala duwanaanshaha mabaadi'da ka soo horjeeda, weedhaha, doodaha, iwm."; "Mucaaradnimada, shakhsi ahaan, rabitaannada ama baahiyaha aan ku habboonayn ee qiyaas ahaan awood siman; sidoo kale, dareenka murugada leh ee ka dhashay mucaaradnimadaas"; iyo "si wadajir ah, isku dhac, ama saameyn gacan ka hadal ah ee jirka jirka" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019a). "Dagaal" iyo "argagixiso" ayaa sidoo kale loo adeegsaday erayo raadin ah oo leh ereyada raadinta ee kor ku xusan.
Suugaanta cawl looma isticmaalin dib u eegista suugaanta. Maqaallada qoraalka buuxa iyo sidoo kale maqaallo aan ahayn qoraal buuxa, laakiin buuxinaya qeexitaannada doorsoomayaasha khuseeya, ayaa dib loo eegay. Amaah interneedka waxaa loo isticmaalay in lagu dalbado maqaallo joornaal ah oo ay isku faca yihiin oo aan qoraal buuxa ku jirin xogta xogta internetka ee aqoonyahanka.
Nigeria iyo Cameroon
Dhibaatada ka jirta Afrika, sida uu qabo Mamdani, waa sawiro muujinaya dhibaatadii dawladdii gumeysiga ka dib (2001). Gumaysigu waxa uu kala furfuray midnimadii Afrikaanka waxana uu ku bedelay xuduudo qoomiyad iyo qaran (Olasupo, Ijeoma, & Oladeji, 2017). Qowmiyada ka talisa dalka ayaa aad uga talisa, sidaas darteedna qarankii xornimada ka dib uu u burburay colaado qowmiyadeed iyo kuwo qowmiyadeed (Olasupo et al., 2017).
Diintu waxay ahayd sifo muhiim ah colaado badan oo Nigeria ka dhacay tan iyo markii ay xornimada qaadatay 1960 (Onapajo, 2017). Kahor iskahorimaadka Boko Haram, daraasado ayaa lagu ogaaday in Nigeria ay ka mid tahay dalalka Afrikaanka ah ee ay ka jiraan xaddi aad u sarreeya oo khilaaf diimeed (Onapajo, 2017). Meherado badan ayaa la xidhay Nigeria sababo la xidhiidha kacdoon diimeed oo intooda badan waa la bililiqaystay ama la burburiyay mulkiilayaashooda ama la dilay ama la barakiciyey (Anwuluorah, 2016). Maadaama ganacsiyada caalamiga ah iyo kuwa kala duwani ay u guureen meelo kale oo aan nabadgelyadu ahayn arrin, shaqaaluhu waxay noqdeen shaqo la'aan iyo qoysas ay saameeyeen (Anwuluorah, 2016). Foyou, Ngwafu, Santoyo, and Ortiz (2018) waxay ka wada hadlayaan saameynta dhaqaale ee argagixisada Nigeria iyo Cameroon. Qorayaashu waxay qeexayaan sida duulaanka Boko Haram ee xuduudaha Waqooyiga Cameroon "ay gacan uga geysteen baabi'inta saldhiggii dhaqaale ee jilicsan ee sii waday saddexda gobol ee waqooyiga ee Cameroon [Waqooyiga, Waqooyiga Fog, iyo Adamawa] waxayna halis galiyeen amniga dadka aan waxba tarayn ee gobolkan” (Foyou et al, 2018, p. 73). Ka dib markii fallaagada Boko Horam ay u gudubtay Waqooyiga Cameroon iyo qaybo ka mid ah Chad iyo Niger, Cameroon waxay ugu dambeyntii caawisay Nigeria (Foyou et al., 2018). Argagixisanimada Boko Haram ee Nigeria, taas oo horseeday dhimashada kumanaan qof oo ay ku jiraan Muslimiin iyo Masiixiyiin, iyo burburinta hantida, kaabayaasha iyo mashaariicda horumarineed, waxay khatar ku tahay "amniga qaranka, waxay sababtaa masiibo bini'aadantinimo, dhaawac maskaxeed, carqaladaynta hawlaha dugsiga, shaqo la'aanta , iyo kororka saboolnimada, taasoo keentay dhaqaale daciif ah" (Ugorji, 2017, p. 165).
Iiraan, Ciraaq, Turkiga iyo Suuriya
Dagaalkii Iran iyo Ciraaq wuxuu socday intii u dhaxaysay 1980 ilaa 1988 iyadoo wadarta dhaqaalaha labada dal ay ku kaceen $1.097 trillion, oo loo akhriyay 1 trillion iyo 97 bilyan oo doolar (Mofrid, 1990). Markii uu ku soo duulay Iran, "Saddam Hussein waxa uu damcay in uu deriskiisa ku xalliyo sinnaan la'aanta heshiiskii Algiers, kaas oo uu kala xaajooday Shah ee Iran 1975, iyo taageerada Ayatollah Khomeini ee kooxaha mucaaradka Islaamiga ah ee ka soo horjeeda dawladda Ciraaq" (Parasiliti, 2003, p. 152).
Dawladda Islaamiga ah ee Ciraaq iyo Suuriya (ISIS) waxaa awood u yeeshay iskahorimaad iyo xasillooni darro waxayna noqdeen maamul madaxbannaan (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Daacish waxa ay qabsatay goobo ka baxsan Suuriya, waxa ay horay uga sii gudubtay Ciraaq iyo Lubnaan, iyo colaado rabshado wata, waxay xasuuqday dad rayid ah (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Waxaa jiray warbixino ku saabsan "daldalaada iyo kufsiga Shiicada, Masiixiyiinta, iyo qowmiyadaha kale ee laga tirada badan yahay" ee ISIS (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015. p. 1). Waxaa kaloo la arkayay in ISIS ay lahayd ajande ka baxsan ajandaha gooni-isu-taagga, taasina waxay ka duwan tahay kooxaha kale ee argagixisada ah ee aagga Iran (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Waxyaalaha doorsoomayaal badan marka lagu daro tallaabooyinka amniga ayaa saameeya kobaca magaalada, waxaana ka mid ah nooca tallaabooyinka amniga, kobaca dhaqaalaha iyo dadweynaha, iyo suurtagalnimada khatar (Falah, 2017).
Iraan ka dib, Ciraaq waxa ku nool shiicada ugu badan caalamka oo ka kooban 60-75% Ciraaqiyiinta, waxayna muhiim u tahay istiraatijiyadda diimeed ee Iran (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Xaddiga ganacsiga Ciraaq iyo Iiraan wuxuu ahaa $13 bilyan (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Kobaca ganacsiga Iran iyo Ciraaq waxa uu ku yimid xoojinta xidhiidhka ka dhexeeya madaxda labada dal, Kurdiyiinta, iyo qabaa’ilka Shiicada yaryar (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015).
Kurdiyiinta intooda badani waxay degan yihiin dhulka ay ku jiraan Ciraaq, Iran, Turkiga, iyo Suuriya oo loo yaqaan Kurdistan (Brathwaite, 2014). Dawladihii Cusmaaniyiinta, Ingiriiska, Soofiyeedka, iyo Faransiiska ayaa maamulayey aaggan ilaa dhamaadkii WWII (Brathwaite, 2014). Ciraaq, Iran, Turkiga, iyo Suuriya waxay isku dayeen inay ku cadaadiyaan beelaha laga tirada badan yahay ee Kurdiyiinta iyagoo adeegsanaya siyaasado kala duwan taasoo keentay jawaabo kala duwan oo ka yimid Kurdiyiinta (Brathwaite, 2014). Dadka Kurdiyiinta Suuriya ma fallaagoobayn laga soo bilaabo 1961 ilaa kacdoonkii PKK ee 1984, mana jirin wax khilaaf ah oo ku faafay Ciraaq ilaa Suuriya (Brathwaite, 2014). Kurdiyiinta Suuriya waxay ku biireen qowmiyadahooda dagaalka ka dhanka ah Ciraaq iyo Turkiga halkii ay ka bilaabi lahaayeen colaad ka dhan ah Suuriya (Brathwaite, 2014).
Gobolka Ciraaq ee Kurdistan (KRI) ayaa la kulma isbedel dhaqaale oo badan tobankii sano ee la soo dhaafay, oo ay ku jiraan tirada sii kordhaysa ee soo laabtay tan iyo 2013, sanad uu arkay kobaca dhaqaalaha Kurdistan Ciraaq (Savasta, 2019). Saamaynta qaabka socdaalka ee Kurdistan tan iyo bartamihii 1980-meeyadii waa barakac intii lagu jiray ololihii Anfaal ee 1988, soo-noqodkii u dhexeeyey 1991 iyo 2003, iyo magaalaynta ka dib markii taliskii Ciraaq dhacay 2003 (Eklund, Persson, & Pilesjö, 2016). Dalagga jiilaalka oo badan ayaa lagu sifeeyay mid firfircoon inta lagu jiro xilliga dib-u-dhiska marka la barbar dhigo xilligii Anfaal-ka dambeyay oo muujinaya in qaar ka mid ah dhulalka la dayacay ka dib ololihii Anfal dib loo soo ceshaday muddadii dib-u-dhiska (Eklund et al., 2016). Korodhka beeraha ma dhici karto ka dib cunaqabataynta ganacsiga inta lagu jiro wakhtigan taas oo sharxi karta fidinta dhul-beereedka jiilaalka (Eklund et al., 2016). Qaar ka mid ah meelaha aan hore loo beeran ayaa noqday dhul-beereedka jiilaalka waxaana kor u kacay dhul-beereedkii jiilaalka ee la diiwaan galiyay toban sano ka dib markii xilligii dib-u-dhiska uu dhammaaday oo uu dhacay nidaamkii Ciraaq (Eklund et al., 2016). Iskahorimaadka u dhexeeya dawladda Islaamiga ah (IS) iyo dawladaha Kurdishka iyo Ciraaq, qalalaasaha intii lagu jiray 2014 waxay muujinayaan in aaggan ay sii wadaan inay saameeyaan iskahorimaadyada (Eklund et al., 2016).
Colaadda Kurdiyiinta ee Turkiga waxay asal ahaan ka soo jeedaan Boqortooyada Cusmaaniyiinta (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2017). Hogaamiyeyaasha qowmiyadaha iyo diinta waa in lagu daraa fahamka isku dhaca Kurdida (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2017). Aragtida Kurdiyiinta ee ku aaddan iskahorimaadka Turkiga iyo fahamka qowmiyadaha Turkiga ee wadajirka ah iyo qowmiyadaha dheeraadka ah ee Turkiga ayaa muhiim u ah fahamka khilaafka bulshadan (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2016). Kacdoonka Kurdiyiinta ee doorashooyinkii tartanka ku jiray ee Turkiga waxa ay ka muuqatay 1950 (Tezcur, 2015). Kor u kaca dhaqdhaqaaqa Kurdiyiinta rabshadaha wata ee Turkiga ayaa la helay ka dib 1980 markii PKK (Partiya Karkereˆn Kurdistan), oo ah koox Kurdish ah oo fallaago ah, ay bilaabeen dagaalka guerilla 1984 (Tezcur, 2015). Dagaalku waxa uu sii waday in uu sababo dhimasho ka dib sodon sano ka dib markii uu bilowday kacdoonka (Tezcur, 2015).
Dagaalka Kurdiyiinta ee Turkiga ayaa loo arkaa inuu yahay "kiis wakiil u ah dagaalladii sokeeye ee qowmiyad-qaran" iyadoo sharraxaysa xiriirka ka dhexeeya dagaallada sokeeye ee qowmiyad-qaran iyo burburinta deegaanka iyadoo dagaallada sokeeye ay u badan tahay inay noqdaan kuwo go'doonsan oo u oggolaanaya dowladda inay fuliso qorshaheeda burburinta kacdoonka (Gurses, 2012, p.268). Kharashka dhaqaale ee lagu qiyaasay in Turkigu ka galay iskahorimaadka gooni-goosadka Kurdiyiinta tan iyo 1984-tii iyo ilaa dhammaadkii 2005-tii waxay dhan tahay 88.1 bilyan oo doollar oo ah kharashaad toos ah iyo mid dadban (Mutlu, 2011). Kharashaadka tooska ah ayaa isla markiiba loo nisbeeyaa iskahorimaadka halka kharashyada aan tooska ahayn ay yihiin cawaaqibka sida khasaaraha raasumaal ee dhimashada ama dhaawaca shakhsiyaadka, socdaalka, duulista caasimadda iyo maalgashiga la dayacay (Mutlu, 2011).
Israa'iil
Israa'iil maanta waa waddan diin iyo waxbarasho u qaybsan (Cochran, 2017). Waxaa jiray iskahorimaad joogto ah oo u dhexeeya Yuhuuda iyo Carabta Israa'iil oo bilaabmay qarnigii labaatanaad ilaa iyo bilowgii qarnigii kow iyo labaatanaad (Schein, 2017). Ingriisku waxa uu ka qabsaday dhulkii Cusmaaniyiinta dagaalkii 2017aad ee aduunka, dhulkuna waxa uu noqday xarun sahayda ugu weyn u ahayd ciidamadii Ingiriiska ee WWII (Schein, 1920). Waxaa lagu xoojiyay amarkii Ingiriiska iyo dawladda Israa'iil, Israa'iil waxay bixisay ilo gaar ah laakiin aan sinnayn iyo helitaanka xaddidan ee dawladda iyo waxbarashada diinta laga bilaabo 2017 ilaa hadda (Cochran, XNUMX).
Daraasad uu sameeyay Schein (2017) ayaa lagu ogaaday in aysan jirin hal saameyn oo dhameystiran oo dagaaladu ku yeesheen dhaqaalaha Israel. WWI, WWII, iyo Dagaalkii Lixda Maalmood waxay faa'iido u lahaayeen dhaqaalaha Israa'iil, laakiin "kacdoonka Carabta" ee 1936-1939, dagaalkii sokeeye ee 1947-1948, dagaalkii ugu horreeyay ee Carabta iyo Israa'iil ee deganeyaasha Carabta ee qasabka ah Falastiin, iyo labada intifadas waxay saameyn xun ku yeesheen dhaqaalaha" (Schein, 2017, p. 662). Saamaynta dhaqaale ee dagaalka 1956 iyo dagaaladii koowaad iyo labaad ee Lubnaan waxay ahaayeen "xad-adeeg ah ama mid togan ama taban" (Schein, 2017, p. 662). Tan iyo kala duwanaanshaha muddada-dheer ee deegaanka dhaqaalaha laga soo bilaabo dagaalkii ugu horreeyay ee Carabta iyo Israa'iil ee loogu talagalay dadka deggan Yuhuudda ee degan Falastiin qasabka ah iyo Dagaalkii Yom Kippur iyo kala duwanaanshaha muddada-gaaban ee deegaanka dhaqaale ee ka soo jeeda dagaalka dagaalka lama go'aamin karo, saameynta dhaqaale lama xallin karo (Schein, 2017).
Schein (2017) wuxuu ka hadlayaa laba fikradood oo lagu xisaabinayo saamaynta dhaqaale ee dagaalka: (1) qodobka ugu muhiimsan ee xisaabintan waa isbeddelka jawiga dhaqaale ee dagaalka iyo (2) in dagaallada gudaha ama sokeeye ay sababaan dhaawac badan oo xagga dhaqaalaha ah. kobaca marka la barbar dhigo khasaaraha ka soo gaadhay raasamaal jidheed oo ka dhashay dagaalladii tan iyo markii dhaqaaluhu istaago inta lagu jiro dagaalada gudaha ama sokeeye. WWI waa tusaale isbeddelka deegaanka dhaqaalaha ee dagaalka (Schein, 2017). Inkasta oo WWI ay burburisay caasimaddii beeraha ee Israa'iil, isbeddelka jawiga dhaqaalaha ee ay sabab u tahay WWI waxay abuurtay kobac dhaqaale ka dib dagaalka, sidaas darteed WWI waxay saameyn togan ku yeelatay kobaca dhaqaalaha ee Israa'iil (Schein, 2017). Fikradda labaad ayaa ah in dagaallada gudaha ama sokeeye, oo ay tusaale u yihiin labadii intifada iyo 'kacdoonka Carabta', ee khasaaraha ka dhashay dhaqaaluhu uusan shaqeynin muddo dheer, ay sababeen waxyeello ka badan kobaca dhaqaalaha, marka loo eego khasaaraha ka soo gaaray raasamaal ka yimid dagaallo ( Schein, 2017).
Fikradaha ku saabsan saameynta dhaqaale ee muddada dheer iyo muddada gaaban ee dagaalka waxaa lagu dabaqi karaa daraasadda ay samaysay Ellenberg et al. (2017) ee ku saabsan ilaha waaweyn ee kharashyada dagaalka sida kharashyada isbitaallada, adeegyada caafimaadka dhimirka si loo yareeyo falcelinta walaaca ba'an, iyo dabagalka ambalaaska. Daraasadu waxay ahayd dabagal 18 bilood ah oo lagu sameeyay dadka rayidka ah ee Israel ka dib dagaalkii 2014 ee Gaza wakhtigaas oo cilmi-baarayaashu ay falanqeeyeen kharashyada caafimaad ee la xidhiidha weerarrada gantaalaha waxayna baareen tirakoobka dhibbanayaasha soo gudbiyay sheegashooyinka naafada. Inta badan kharashyada sanadka ugu horeeya waxay la xiriiraan isbitaal dhigista iyo caawinta dhimista walaaca (Ellenberg et al., 2017). Kharashaadka baxnaaninta iyo baxnaaninta ayaa kordhay sanadka labaad (Ellenberg et al., 2017). Saamaynta maaliyadeed ee noocan oo kale ah ee deegaanka dhaqaale ma dhicin sannadkii ugu horreeyay oo keliya laakiin waxay sii waday inay koraan muddada fog.
Afghanistan
Laga soo bilaabo afgambigii millatari ee xisbigii shuuciga ahaa ee Dimuqraadiga Shacabka Afgaanistaan 1978 iyo duulaankii Soofiyeeti ee 1979, Afgaanistaan waxay la kulmeen sodon sano oo rabshado ah, dagaal sokeeye, cadaadis, iyo nadiifin qowmiyadeed (Callen, Isaqzadeh, Long, & Sprenger, 2014). Iskahorimaadka gudaha ayaa weli si xun u saameeya horumarinta dhaqaalaha Afgaanistaan taas oo hoos u dhigtay maalgelinta gaarka ah ee muhiimka ah (Huelin, 2017). Arimo kala duwan oo diimeed iyo qowmiyadeed ayaa ka jira Afgaanistaan iyada oo ay jiraan saddex iyo toban qabiil oo qowmiyadeed oo haysta caqiidooyin kala duwan oo u tartamaya xakamaynta dhaqaalaha (Dixon, Kerr, & Mangahas, 2014).
Saamaynta xaaladda dhaqaale ee Afgaanistaan waa feudalism maadaama ay ka soo horjeedaan horumarka dhaqaalaha Afgaanistaan (Dixon, Kerr, & Mangahas, 2014). Afgaanistaan waxay u adeegtaa sida 87% opium-ka sharci-darrada ah ee adduunka iyo heroin-ka tan iyo markii ay dhaleecaysay Taliban 2001 (Dixon et al., 2014). Iyada oo ku dhawaad 80% dadka Afgaanistaan ku lug leeyihiin beeraha, Afgaanistaan waxaa loo tixgeliyaa ugu horrayn dhaqaalaha beeralayda (Dixon et al., 2014). Afgaanistaan waxay leedahay suuqyo yar, iyadoo opium uu yahay kan ugu weyn (Dixon et al., 2014).
Afgaanistaan, oo ah waddan ay dagaalladu aafeeyeen oo leh kheyraad dabiici ah oo ka caawin kara Afgaanistaan si ay u noqdaan kuwo ku tiirsan gargaarka, maalgashadayaasha iyo bulshooyinka ayaa la tacaalaya siyaasadaha aan khilaafka lahayn ee dawladda iyo maalgashadayaasha (del Castillo, 2014). Maalgelinta tooska ah ee shisheeye (FDI) ee macdanta iyo beeraha beeraha, iyo siyaasadaha dawladda ee lagu taageerayo maal-gashigan, ayaa sababay iskahorimaadyo bulshooyinka barokacay (del Castillo, 2014).
Waxaa lagu qiyaasay kharashka ku baxay mashruuca Kharashka Dagaalka ee Machadka Watson ee Daraasaadka Caalamiga ah in kharashaadka Maraykanka ee 2001 ilaa 2011 ee duulaanka Ciraaq, Afgaanistaan, iyo Pakistan ay dhan tahay $3.2 ilaa $4 trillion taas oo ahayd saddex jeer qiyaasta rasmiga ah (Masco, 2013). Kharashyadaas waxaa ka mid ahaa dagaalladii dhabta ahaa, kharashka caafimaadka ee mujaahidiinta, miisaaniyadda difaaca rasmiga ah, mashaariicda gargaarka ee Wasaaradda Arrimaha Dibadda, iyo Amniga Gudaha (Masco, 2013). Qorayaashu waxay diiwaangeliyeen in ku dhawaad 10,000 oo askari oo Maraykan ah iyo qandaraasleyaal la dilay iyo 675,000 sheegasho naafo ah oo loo gudbiyay Arrimaha Veteran Sebtembar 2011 (Masco, 2013). Dhaawaca rayidka ee Ciraaq, Afgaanistaan, iyo Pakistan ayaa lagu qiyaasay ugu yaraan 137,000, iyadoo in ka badan 3.2 milyan oo qaxooti Ciraaq ka yimid kuwaas oo hadda ku barokacay gobolka oo dhan (Masco, 2013). Mashruuca Kharashka Dagaalku waxa kale oo uu bartay kharashyo kale oo badan oo ay ku jiraan kharashyada deegaanka iyo kharashyada fursadaha (Masco, 2013).
Dood iyo Gabagabo
Khilaafka qowmiyadaha iyo diinta ayaa u muuqda in uu saameeyay wadamada, shaqsiyaadka iyo kooxaha si toos ah iyo si dadbanba. Kharashyadaas waxaa loo raaci karaa kharashyada tooska ah, sida lagu arkay maqaallada dib loo eegay daraasaddan, iyo sidoo kale si dadban, sida lagu muujiyey daraasad diiradda lagu saaray saddexda gobol ee koonfurta Thailand - Pattani, Yala, iyo Narathiwat (Ford, Jampaklay, & Chamratrithirong, 2018). Daraasaddan oo ay ku jiraan 2,053 dhalinyaro muslimiin ah oo da'doodu u dhaxayso 18-24 sano jir, ka qaybgalayaashu waxay soo sheegeen heerarka hoose ee calaamadaha dhimirka inkastoo boqolkiiba yar ay soo sheegeen "tiro aad u badan oo ku filan oo walaac leh" (Ford et al., 2018, p. . 1). Calaamado badan oo maskaxeed iyo heerarka hoose ee farxadda ayaa laga helay ka qaybgalayaasha kuwaas oo rabey inay u haajiraan shaqo meel kale (Ford et al., 2018). Qaar badan oo ka mid ah ka qaybgalayaashu waxay sharraxeen welwelka ku saabsan rabshadaha ee nolol maalmeedkooda waxayna soo sheegeen caqabado badan oo ku saabsan raadinta waxbarashada, oo ay ku jiraan isticmaalka daroogada, kharashka dhaqaalaha ee waxbarashada, iyo khatarta rabshadaha (Ford, et al., 2018). Gaar ahaan, ka qaybgalayaasha ragga ah waxay muujiyeen walaac ku saabsan tuhunka ku lug lahaanshaha rabshadaha iyo isticmaalka daroogada (Ford et al., 2018). Qorshaha lagu haajiray ama lagu degayo Pattani, Yala iyo Narathiwat wuxuu la xiriiray shaqada xaddidan iyo khatarta rabshadaha (Ford et al., 2018). Waxaa la ogaaday in inkasta oo inta badan dhallinyaradu ay horay u sii wataan noloshooda qaar badanna ay muujiyaan caado-u-qaadista rabshadaha, niyad-jabka dhaqaale ee ka dhashay rabshadaha iyo khatarta rabshadaha ayaa si joogta ah u saameeya nolol maalmeedkooda (Ford et al., 2018). Kharashka tooska ah ee dhaqaalaha si fudud looguma xisaabin karin suugaanta.
Meelo kale oo badan oo ka mid ah saameynta dhaqaale ee colaadaha qowmiyadaha iyo diinta waxay u baahan yihiin cilmi-baaris dheeraad ah, oo ay ku jiraan cilmi-baaris diiradda lagu saaray xisaabinta isku-xirnaanta ku saabsan colaadaha qowmiyadaha-diimeed iyo saameynta dhaqaalaha, dalal iyo gobolo dheeraad ah iyo kuwo gaar ah, iyo muddada colaadda iyo saameynta ay leedahay. dhaqaale ahaan. Sida Collier (1999) la xidhiidha, "Nabaddu waxay sidoo kale beddeshaa isbeddellada ka kooban ee uu sababay dagaal sokeeye oo daba dheeraaday. Macnuhu waa in ka dib markii ay dhammaadeen dagaalladii dhaadheeraa dhaqdhaqaaqyada nugul ee dagaalku waxay la kulmaan koboc aad u degdeg ah: qaybsiga nabada guud waxaa lagu kordhiyey isbeddel isku dhafan" (bogga 182). Dadaalka nabad-dhisidda, cilmi-baarista sii socota ee aaggan ayaa muhiimad weyn u leh.
Talooyin Cilmi-baaris Dheeraad ah: Hababka Dhex-dhexaadinta ee Dhismaha Nabadda
Intaa waxaa dheer, haddii cilmi-baaris dheeraad ah loogu yeero dadaallada nabad-dhisidda sidii hore looga hadlay ee ku saabsan colaadaha qowmiyadaha-diimeed, habkee, hababka, iyo hababka aragtiyeed ee caawiya cilmi-baaristaas? Muhiimadda wada shaqaynta ka dhaxaysa ma aha mid la dayaci karo dhismaha nabadda sida qaybaha kala duwan oo ay ka mid yihiin, laakiin aan ku xaddidnayn, shaqada bulshada, cilmiga bulshada, dhaqaalaha, xiriirka caalamiga ah, daraasaadka diinta, barashada jinsiga, taariikhda, anthropology, daraasaadka isgaarsiinta, iyo sayniska siyaasadeed, u yimaadaan habka nabadaynta oo leh farsamooyin iyo habab kala duwan, gaar ahaan habab aragtiyeed.
Muujinta kartida lagu baro xallinta khilaafaadka iyo nabad-dhisidda si loo dhiso caddaaladda jinsiyadeed, bulsho, deegaan, iyo dhaqaale waxay udub dhexaad u tahay manhajka waxbarashada shaqada bulshada ee shahaadada koowaad iyo qalinjabinta. Culumo badan ayaa ku lug leh barista xallinta khilaafaadka, wada shaqeynta culuumtaasi waxay xoojin kartaa geeddi-socodka nabad-dhisidda. Cilmi-baadhista falanqaynta nuxurka kuma iman iyada oo si qoto-dheer loo baadho suugaanta dib loo eegay ee ka hadlaysa baridda xallinta khilaafaadka ee dhinaca xirfadleyda, oo ay ku jiraan edbinta badan, edbinta iyo aragtiyaha kala beddelka, aragtiyaha ka qaybqaata qoto dheer, ballaca, iyo qaninimada xallinta khilaafaadka iyo hababka nabadaynta.
Waxaa qaatay xirfadda shaqada bulshada, aragtida nidaamka deegaanka ee laga soo saaray aragtida nidaamyada waxayna bixisay qaabdhismeedka fikradeed ee koritaanka habka guud ee ku dhaqanka shaqada bulshada (Suppes & Wells, 2018). Habka guud wuxuu diiradda saarayaa heerar kala duwan, ama nidaamyo, faragelin, oo ay ku jiraan shaqsi, qoys, koox, urur, iyo bulsho. Dhinaca nabad-dhisidda iyo xallinta khilaafaadka, dawlad-goboleed, heer qaran iyo mid caalami ah ayaa lagu daraa heerar wax-ka-qabasho ah in kasta oo heerarkan ay inta badan u shaqeeyaan heerar urur iyo bulsho ahaan. Gudaha Jaantus 1 Hoos, gobol, qaran, iyo caalami ayaa loo hawlgeliyay sidii heerar kala duwan (nidaamyada) faragelinta. Aragtidaani waxay u oggolaanaysaa qaybo kala duwan oo aqoon iyo xirfad u leh nabad-dhisidda iyo xallinta khilaafaadka inay si wada jir ah u farageliyaan heerar gaar ah, taasoo keentay in edbin kastaa siiyo awooddooda hab-dhisidda nabadda iyo xallinta khilaafaadka. Sida ku qeexan Jaantus 1, Habka isku dhafka ah ma ogola oo kaliya, laakiin wuxuu dhiirigeliyaa, dhammaan culuumta kala duwan si ay uga qaybqaataan dhismaha nabadda iyo geeddi-socodka xallinta khilaafaadka gaar ahaan la shaqeynta noocyo kala duwan oo cilmi-baaris ah sida colaadaha isir-diimeed.
Falanqaynta dheeraadka ah ee xallinta khilaafaadka tacliinta iyo sharraxaadda koorsada dhisidda nabadda iyo hababka waxbaridda ee shaqada bulshada iyo qaybaha kale ayaa lagu talinayaa sida hababka ugu wanaagsan ee nabad-dhisidda si qoto dheer loo sharaxi karo loona shaandheyn karo hawlaha nabad-dhisidda. Waxyaalaha kala duwan ee la bartay waxaa ka mid ah wax ku biirinta iyo culuunta culuumta lagu barayo koorsooyinka xallinta khilaafaadka iyo ka qaybgalka ardayda ee xallinta khilaafaadka caalamiga ah. Anshaxa shaqada bulshada, tusaale ahaan, waxay diiradda saartaa bulshada, jinsiyadda, dhaqaalaha, iyo caddaaladda deegaanka ee xallinta khilaafaadka sida lagu sheegay Golaha Waxbarashada Shaqada Bulshada 2022 Siyaasadda Waxbarashada iyo Heerarka Aqoonsiga ee Barnaamijyada Baccalaureate iyo Master's (p. 9, Council on Social Social Programs). Waxbarashada Shaqada, 2022):
Kartida 2: Horumarinta Xuquuqda Aadanaha iyo Bulshada, Jinsiyada, Dhaqaalaha, iyo Cadaalada Deegaanka
Shaqaalaha bulshadu waxay fahmaan in qof kastaa iyadoon loo eegin jagada bulshada uu leeyahay xuquuqaha aasaasiga ah ee aadanaha. Shaqaalaha bulshadu waxay aqoon u leeyihiin is-dhexgalka caalamiga ah iyo caddaalad-darrada joogtada ah ee taariikhda oo dhan taasoo keenta cadaadiska iyo cunsuriyadda, oo ay ku jiraan doorka shaqada bulshada iyo jawaabta. Shaqaalaha bulshadu waxay si aad ah u qiimeeyaan qaybinta awoodda iyo mudnaanta bulshada si ay u horumariyaan caddaaladda bulshada, jinsiyadda, dhaqaalaha, iyo deegaanka iyagoo yareynaya sinnaan la'aanta iyo hubinta sharafta iyo ixtiraamka dhammaan. Shaqaalaha bulshadu waxay u doodaan oo ay ku hawlan yihiin xeelado lagu baabi'inayo caqabadaha qaabdhismeedka dulmiga ah si loo hubiyo in ilaha bulshada, xuquuqda, iyo mas'uuliyadaha loo qaybiyo si siman iyo in xuquuqda madaniga, siyaasadda, dhaqaalaha, bulshada iyo dhaqanka la ilaaliyo.
Shaqaalaha bulshada:
a) u doodista xuquuqda aadanaha ee qofka, qoyska, kooxda, ururada, iyo heerarka nidaamka bulshada; iyo
b) ku dhaqaaqida dhaqamada hormarinaya xuquuqul insaanka si kor loogu qaado cadaalada bulsho, isir, dhaqaale iyo deegaan.
Falanqaynta nuxurka, oo lagu sameeyay muunad random ee koorsooyinka xallinta khilaafaadka iyada oo loo marayo barnaamijyada jaamacadaha iyo kuleejka ee Maraykanka iyo caalamkaba, ayaa lagu ogaaday in inkasta oo koorasyadu ay baraan fikradaha xallinta khilaafaadka, koorasyada inta badan aan la siinin cinwaannadan anshaxa shaqada bulshada iyo in culuumta kale. Cilmi-baadhistu waxa kale oo lagu ogaaday kala duwanaansho weyn oo xagga tirada culuumta ku lug leh xallinta isku dhaca, diiradda culuumta xallinta khilaafaadka, goobta koorsooyinka xallinta khilaafaadka iyo barnaamijyada jaamacadda ama kulliyadda, iyo tirada iyo noocyada koorsooyinka xallinta khilaafaadka iyo xoojinta. Cilmi-baaristu waxay ku taallaa qaabab aad u kala duwan, xoog badan, iyo habab iyo hab-dhaqanno xirfad-yaqaanno ah oo iskaashanaya oo lagu xallinayo khilaafyada fursadaha cilmi-baarista iyo doodaha labadaba gudaha Mareykanka iyo caalamkaba (Conrad, Reyes, & Stewart, 2022; Dyson, del Mar Fariña, Gurrola, & Cross-Denny, 2020; Friedman, 2019; Hatiboğlu, Özateş Gelmez, & Öngen, 2019; Onken, Franks, Lewis, & Han, 2021).
Xirfadda shaqada bulshada sida nabad-dhisidda iyo xirfadlayaasha xallinta khilaafaadka ayaa ku dabaqi doona aragtida nidaamka deegaanka ee geeddi-socodkooda. Tusaale ahaan, xeeladaha kala duwan ee fallaagada adeegsatay kuwaas oo aan ahayn rabshad dabci ahaan (Ryckman, 2020; Cunningham, Dahl, & Frugé 2017) waa la baadhay (Cunningham & Doyle, 2021). Xirfadlayaasha dhismaha nabadda iyo sidoo kale aqoonyahannada ayaa fiiro gaar ah u siiyay maamulka fallaagada (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021). Cunningham iyo Loyle (2021) waxay ogaadeen in cilmi-baaris ku saabsan kooxaha mucaaradka ay diiradda saareen dabeecadaha iyo waxqabadyada ay muujiyeen fallaagada aan ku jirin qaybta dagaalka, oo ay ku jiraan dhismaha hay'adaha maxalliga ah iyo bixinta adeegyada bulshada (Mampilly, 2011; Arjona, 2016a; Arjona , Kasfir, & Mampilly, 2015). Ku darida aqoonta laga helay daraasadahan, cilmi-baaristu waxay diiradda saartay in la baaro isbeddellada ku lug leh hab-dhaqannada maamul ee dalal badan (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021; Huang, 2016; Heger & Jung, 2017; Stewart, 2018). Si kastaba ha ahaatee, daraasaadka maamulka fallaagada waxay inta badan baaraan arrimaha maamulka inta badan sida qayb ka mid ah hababka xallinta isku dhaca ama waxa laga yaabaa inay diiradda saaraan kaliya xeeladaha rabshadaha (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021). Codsiga habka hab-nololeedku waxa ay faa'iido u yeelan doontaa in lagu dabaqo aqoonta iyo xirfadaha edbinta dhexdooda ah ee dhismaha nabadda iyo hababka xallinta khilaafaadka.
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