Ho Kopanya Tlhekefetso ea Sebopeho, Likhohlano le Tšenyo ea Tikoloho
Sekhetho:
Sengoliloeng se hlahloba kamoo ho se leka-lekane lits'ebetsong tsa sechaba, lipolotiki, moruo le setso ho bakang likhohlano tsa sebopeho tse bonts'ang mathata a lefats'e. Joaloka sechaba sa lefats'e, re hokahane ho feta leha e le neng pele. Litsamaiso tsa sechaba le tsa lefats'e tsa sechaba tse thehang mekhatlo le maano a khethollang bongata ha a ntse a tsoela molemo ba fokolang ha a sa tsitsa. Khoholeho ea sechaba ka lebaka la khethollo ea lipolotiki le moruo e lebisa likhohlanong tsa nako e telele, ho falla ha batho ba bangata, le ho senyeha ha tikoloho eo tsamaiso ea neo-liberal ea lipolotiki e hlolehang ho e rarolla. E shebane le Afrika, pampiri e bua ka lisosa tsa pefo ea meralo mme e fana ka maikutlo a hore na e ka fetoloa joang hore e be phelisano e lumellanang. Khotso e tsitsitseng ea lefats'e e hloka phetoho ea paradigm ho: (1) ho nkela maemo a ts'ireletso ea naha ka ts'ireletso e ts'oanang, e totobatsang nts'etsopele ea bohlokoa ea batho bakeng sa batho bohle, sepheo sa botho bo arolelanoang le qetello e tšoanang; (2) theha moruo le litsamaiso tsa lipolotiki tse etelletsang pele batho le bophelo bo botle ba lipolanete ho feta phaello.
Kopitsa Sengoloa Sena
Tlhahiso:
Mayanja, ENB (2022). Ho hokahanya pefo ea sebopeho, likhohlano le tšenyo ea tikoloho. Journal of Living Hammoho, 7(1), 15-25.
Lintlha tsa Sengoloa:
@Sengoloa{Mayanja2022}
Sehlooho = {Ho Hokahanya Pefo ea Sebopeho, Likhohlano le Tšenyo ea Tikoloho}
Mongoli = {Evelyn Namakula B. Mayanja}
Url = {https://icermediation.org/linking-structural-violence-conflicts-and-ecological-damages/}
ISSN = {2373-6615 (Printa); 2373-6631 (Inthaneteng)}
Selemo = {2022}
Letsatsi = {2022-12-10}
Journal = {Journal of Living Hammoho}
Bolumo = {7}
Nomoro = {1}
Maqephe = {15-25}
Mohatisi = {Setsi sa Machaba sa Bobuelli ba Ethno-Bolumeli}
Aterese = {White Plains, New York}
Khatiso = {2022}.
Selelekela
Ho hloka toka ha kaho ke sesosa sa likhohlano tse telele tsa ka hare le tsa machaba. Li kenyelelitsoe litsamaisong tse sa leka-lekaneng tsa lipolotiki le moruo le lits'ebetso tse matlafatsang tlhekefetso le khatello ea batho ba phahameng sechabeng sa lipolotiki, mekhatlo ea machaba (MNCs), le linaha tse matla (Jeong, 2000). Bokolone, ho ikopanya ha lichaba tsa lefatše, bokapitale le meharo li susumelitse ho senngoa ha mekhatlo e tloaelehileng ea setso le litekanyetso tse sirelelitseng tikoloho, le ho thibela le ho rarolla likhohlano. Tlhōlisano ea matla a lipolotiki, moruo, sesole le thekenoloji e amoha ba fokolang litlhoko tsa bona tsa mantlha, 'me e baka ho nyenyefatsoa le ho hatakela seriti le tokelo ea bona. Linaheng tsa machaba, mekhatlo e sa sebetseng hantle le maano a linaha tsa mantlha li tiisa tlhekefetso ea linaha tse ka thoko. Boemong ba naha, bompoli, bochaba bo senyang, le lipolotiki tsa mpa, tse bolokoang ka likhoka le maano a tsoelang batho ba phahameng ba lipolotiki molemo feela, li tsoala pherekano, li siea ba fokolang ba se na boikhethelo haese ho sebelisa pefo e le mokhoa oa ho bua ’nete ho bona. matla.
Ho hloka toka ha sebopeho le pefo li ngata kaha boemo bo bong le bo bong ba likhohlano bo kenyelletsa likarolo tsa sebopeho tse kenelletseng lits'ebetsong le lits'ebetsong moo maano a etsoang. Maire Dugan (1996), mofuputsi oa khotso ebile e le setsebi sa theorist, o ralile mohlala oa 'nested paradigm' mme a supa maemo a mane a khohlano: litaba tse khohlanong; likamano tse amehang; litsamaiso tse nyane moo bothata bo leng teng; le meaho ea tsamaiso. Dugan oa hlokomela:
Likhohlano tsa tsamaiso e nyenyane hangata li bonahatsa likhohlano tsa tsamaiso e pharalletseng, tse tlisang ho hloka toka ho kang khethollo ea morabe, khethollo ea botona le botšehali, khethollo le lehloeo la batho ba ratanang le ba bong bo tšoanang liofising le lifekthering tseo re sebetsang ho tsona, matlong a borapeli ao re rapellang ho ’ona, makhotleng le mabōpong ao re bapalang ho ’ona. , literateng tseo re kopanang le baahelani ba rōna ho tsona, esita le matlo ao re lulang ho ’ona. Mathata a boemo ba tsamaiso ea tsamaiso e ka 'na ea e-ba teng ka bobona, a sa hlahisoa ke 'nete e pharaletseng ea sechaba. (leq. 16)
Sengoliloeng sena se bua ka ho hloka toka ha meralo ea machaba le ea naha Afrika. Walter Rodney (1981) o hlokomela mehlodi e mmedi ya merusu ya sebopeho sa Aforika e khinang kgatelopele ya kontinente: “tshebetso ya tsamaiso ya bo-imperiyali” e haholang maruo a Afrika, e etsang hore ho se kgonehe hore kontinente e ka ntshetsa pele mehlodi ya yona ka potlako; le "ba qhekellang tsamaiso le ba sebeletsang e le baemeli kapa ba sa hlokomele ba tsamaiso e boletsoeng. Bokapitale ba Europe Bophirima ke bona ba ileng ba atolosa tlatlapo ea bona ho tloha ka hare ho Europe ho akaretsa Afrika eohle” (leq.27).
Ka matseno ana, pampiri e hlahloba likhopolo tse ling tse tšehetsang ho se leka-lekane ha meralo, e lateloe ke tlhahlobo ea mathata a mahlonoko a tlhekefetso ea meralo e lokelang ho rarolloa. Pampiri e phethela ka litlhahiso tsa ho fetola pefo ea sebopeho.
Maikutlo a Theory
Poleloana ea pefo ea tlhophiso e qapiloeng ke Johan Galtung (1969) mabapi le mekhoa ea sechaba: litsamaiso tsa lipolotiki, moruo, setso, bolumeli le molao tse thibelang batho, sechaba le sechaba ho fihlela bokhoni ba bona bo felletseng. Tlhekefetso ea sebopeho ke "ts'enyehelo e ka qojoang ea litlhoko tsa mantlha tsa motho kapa ... ho senyeha ha bophelo ba motho, ho theolang tekanyo ea 'nete eo motho a khonang ho khotsofatsa litlhoko tsa hae ka tlase ho moo ho neng ho ka khoneha" (Galtung, 1969, p. 58) . Mohlomong, Galtung (1969) e nkile lentsoe lena ho tsoa ho thuto ea bolumeli ea tokoloho ea Latin America ea bo-1960 moo "libopeho tsa sebe" kapa "sebe sa sechaba" li ne li sebelisetsoa ho bua ka meaho e hlahisitseng ho hloka toka sechabeng le ho khesoa ha mafutsana. Batšehetsi ba thuto ea bolumeli ea tokoloho ba kenyelletsa Moarekabishopo Oscar Romero le Ntate Gustavo Gutiérrez. Gutiérrez (1985) o ngotse: "bofutsana bo bolela lefu ... eseng feela 'meleng empa kelellong le setso" (leq. 9).
Mehaho e sa lekaneng ke "lisosa tsa metso" tsa likhohlano (Cousens, 2001, p. 8). Ka linako tse ling, pefo ea sebopeho e bitsoa pefo ea mekhatlo e bakoang ke "mekhatlo ea sechaba, ea lipolotiki le ea moruo" e lumellang "kabo e sa lekanang ea matla le lisebelisoa" (Botes, 2003, p. 362). Pefo e etsoang ka har'a mehaho e tsoela batho ba seng bakae ba nang le monyetla molemo 'me e hatella ba bangata. Burton (1990) o amahanya pefo ea sebopeho le ho hloka toka ha mekhatlo ea sechaba le maano a thibelang batho ho fihlela litlhoko tsa bona tsa thuto ea thuto ea bolumeli. Mehaho ea sechaba e bakoa ke "dialectic, kapa interplay, pakeng tsa mekhatlo ea meralo le khoebo ea batho ea ho hlahisa le ho theha linnete tse ncha tsa sebopeho" (Botes, 2003, p. 360). Li hahiloe ka "mekhatlo ea sechaba e fumanehang hohle, e tloaelehileng ke mekhatlo e tsitsitseng le liphihlelo tse tloaelehileng" (Galtung, 1969, p. 59). Hobane mehaho e joalo e bonahala e tloaelehile ebile e batla e sa tšose, e lula e batla e sa bonahale. Colonialism, tšebeliso ea matla a lefats'e a ka leboea ea lisebelisoa tsa Afrika le ho se ntlafatse, ho senyeha ha tikoloho, khethollo ea morabe, bo-white supremacism, neocolonialism, liindasteri tsa ntoa tse etsang phaello feela ha ho e-na le lintoa haholo-holo Global South, ho tlosoa ha Afrika ho etsa liqeto tsa machaba le 14 Bophirimela. Lichaba tsa Afrika tse lefang Fora lekhetho la bokolone, ke mehlala e seng mekae feela. Ka mohlala, tšebeliso ea lisebelisoa e baka tšenyo ea tikoloho, likhohlano le ho falla ha batho ba bangata. Leha ho le joalo, the nako e telele ea ho tlatlapa matlotlo a Afrika ha e nkoe e le sesosa sa mantlha sa tlokotsi e atileng ea ho falla ha batho ba bangata bao bophelo ba bona bo sentsoeng ke phello ea bokapitale ba lefatše. Ke habohlokoa ho hlokomela hore khoebo ea makhoba le bokoloniale li ile tsa qeta moruo oa batho le mehloli ea tlhaho ea Afrika. Ka hona, pefo ea sebopeho Afrika e hokahane le bokhoba le ho hloka toka ha sechaba sa bokolone, bokhaphithaliste ba morabe, tlhekefetso, khatello, thingification le commodification of Blacks.
Mathata a Bohlokoa a Pefo ea Sebopeho
Ke mang ea fumanang eng le hore na ba fumana bokae e bile mohloli oa likhohlano nalaneng ea batho (Ballard et al., 2005; Burchill et al., 2013). Na ho na le mehloli ea ho khotsofatsa litlhoko tsa batho ba limilione tse likete tse 7.7 lefatšeng? Kotara ea baahi ba Global North ba sebelisa 80% ea matla le tšepe 'me ba ntša likhase tse ngata tsa khabone (Trondheim, 2019). Ka mohlala, United States, Jeremane, Chaena le Japane li hlahisa karolo e fetang halofo ea moruo oa polanete, ha 75% ea baahi ba lichaba tse sa tsoelang pele indastering ba ja 20%, empa ba angoa haholo ke ho futhumala ha lefatše (Bretthauer, 2018; Klein, 2014) le likhohlano tse thehiloeng mehloling tse bakoang ke tlhekefetso ea bokapitale. Sena se kenyeletsa ts'ebeliso ea liminerale tsa bohlokoa tse nkoang e le tse fetolang lipapali ho fokotsa phetoho ea maemo a leholimo (Bretthauer, 2018; Fjelde & Uexkull, 2012). Afrika, le hoja mohlahisi e monyenyane oa carbon e anngoe haholo ke phetoho ea boemo ba leholimo (Bassey, 2012), le lintoa le bofutsana ka lebaka leo, tse lebisang ho falla ha batho ba bangata. Leoatle la Mediterranean le fetohile lebitla la bacha ba limilione ba Maafrika. Ba ruang molemo meahong e senyang tikoloho le ho baka lintoa ba nka phetoho ea maemo a leholimo e le leshano (Klein, 2014). Leha ho le joalo, nts'etsopele, kaho ea khotso, maano a phokotso ea maemo a leholimo le lipatlisiso tse li tšehetsang kaofela li etselitsoe Global North ntle le ho kenyelletsa mokhatlo oa Afrika, litso le litekanyetso tse ts'ehelitseng sechaba ka lilemo tse likete. Joalo ka ha Faucault (1982, 1987) a bolela, pefo ea sebopeho e amahanngoa le litsi tsa tsebo ea matla.
Khoholeho ea setso le boleng e matlafalitsoeng ke likhopolo tsa sejoale-joale le ho ikopanya ha lichaba tsa lefatše li kenya letsoho likhohlanong tsa meralo (Jeong, 2000). Mekhatlo ea sejoale-joale e tšehelitsoeng ke bokhaphithalise, litloaelo tsa demokrasi ea tokoloho, nts'etsopele ea indasteri le tsoelopele ea saense e theha mekhoa ea bophelo le nts'etsopele e tšoanang le ea Bophirima, empa e ripitla semelo sa Afrika sa setso, lipolotiki le moruo. Kutloisiso e akaretsang ea sejoale-joale le nts'etsopele e hlahisoa ho latela bokhopo, bokhaphithaliste, kholo ea litoropo le boinotšing (Jeong, 2000; Mac Ginty & Williams, 2009).
Mehaho ea lipolotiki, ea sechaba le ea moruo e theha maemo a kabo e sa lekanang ea leruo har'a lichaba le ka hare ho lichaba (Green, 2008; Jeong, 2000; Mac Ginty & Williams, 2009). Puso ea lefats'e e hloleha ho etsa lipuisano tse kang Tumellano ea Paris mabapi le phetoho ea maemo a leholimo, ho etsa nalane ea bofuma, ho etsa thuto ea lefats'e ka bophara, kapa ho etsa hore lipheo tsa nts'etsopele ea millennium, le lipheo tsa nts'etsopele ea moshoelella li be le tšusumetso ho feta. Ba ruang molemo tsamaisong ena ha ba elelloe hore ha e sebetse hantle. Ho tsieleha, ka lebaka la lekhalo le ntseng le eketseha pakeng tsa seo batho ba nang le sona le seo ba lumelang hore se ba tšoanela hammoho le ho putlama ha moruo le ho fetoha ha maemo a leholimo, ho ntse ho mpefatsa khethollo, ho falla ha batho ba bangata, lintoa le bokhukhuni. Batho ka bomong, lihlopha le lichaba li batla ho ba ka holim’a maemo a phahameng sechabeng, moruong, lipolotiking, thekenoloji le sesoleng, e leng se khothalletsang tlhōlisano e mabifi har’a lichaba. Afrika, e ruileng ka lisebelisoa tse lakatsoang ke matla a maholo, hape ke 'maraka o nonneng oa liindasteri tsa ntoa ho rekisa libetsa. Ho makatsang ke hore ha ho ntoa e bolelang hore ha ho na phaello bakeng sa liindasteri tsa libetsa, e leng boemo boo li ke keng tsa bo amohela. Ntoa ke eona modus operandi bakeng sa ho fihlella mehloli ea Afrika. Ha lintoa li ntse li kupa, liindasteri tsa libetsa li etsa phaello. Ka ts'ebetso ena, ho tloha Mali ho ea Central African Republic, South Sudan, le Democratic Republic of Congo, bacha ba futsanehileng le ba sa sebetseng ba hoheloa habonolo hore ba thehe kapa ba ikopanye le lihlopha tse hlometseng le tsa likhukhuni. Litlhoko tsa mantlha tse sa fihlelleheng, hammoho le tlolo ea litokelo tsa botho le ho fokolloa ke matla, li thibela batho ho etsa bokhoni ba bona le ho lebisa likhohlanong tsa sechaba le lintoa (Cook-Huffman, 2009; Maslow, 1943).
Ho tlatlapa le ho loantša Afrika ho qalile ka khoebo ea makhoba le bokolone, 'me ho ntse ho tsoela pele ho fihlela kajeno. Sistimi ea machaba ea moruo le litumelo tsa hore 'maraka oa lefats'e, khoebo e bulehileng le matsete a kantle ho naha a tsoela pele molemong oa demokrasi linaha tsa mantlha le likoporasi tse sebelisang lisebelisoa tsa linaha tse kantle ho naha, li li beha maemong a ho romela thepa e tala le thepa e sebelitsoeng kantle ho naha (Carmody, 2016; Southall & Melber, 2009) ). Ho tloha lilemong tsa bo-1980, tlas'a sekhele sa ho ikopanya ha lichaba tsa lefatše, liphetoho tsa 'maraka o sa lefelloeng, le ho kenya Afrika moruong oa lefatše, Mokhatlo oa Lefatše oa Khoebo (WTO) le Letlōle la Machaba la Lichelete (IMF) li ile tsa beha "programu ea phetoho ea moralo" (SAPs) le ho tlama Afrika. linaha ho etsa poraefete, ho lokolla le ho theola lekala la merafo (Carmody, 2016, p. 21). Dinaha tse fetang 30 tsa Aforika di ile tsa qobellwa ho rala botjha dikhoutu tsa tsona tsa merafo ho nolofatsa matsete a otlolohileng a kantle ho naha (FDI) le ho emolwa ha disebediswa. "Haeba mekhoa ea nakong e fetileng ea kopanyo ea Maafrika ho moruo oa lefats'e oa lipolotiki e ne e le kotsi, ... ho tla latela ka mokhoa o utloahalang hore tlhokomelo e lokela ho nkoa ha ho hlahlojoa hore na ho na le mohlala oa tsoelo-pele oa kopanyo ea moruo oa lefats'e bakeng sa Afrika, ho e-na le ho e bula bakeng sa ho tlatlapa ho eketsehileng” (Carmody, 2016, leq. 24).
E sirelelitsoe ke maano a lefats'e a qobellang linaha tsa Afrika ho tsetela ka ho toba kantle ho naha le ho tšehetsoa ke mebuso ea naha ea habo tsona, mekhatlo ea machaba (MNCs) e sebelisang liminerale, oli le mehloli e meng ea tlhaho ea Afrika e etsa joalo ha e tlatlapa mehloli ntle le kotlo. . Ba fana ka tjotjo ho baeta-pele ba lipolotiki ba matsoalloa ho thusa ho qoba lekhetho, ho pata litlōlo tsa bona tsa molao, ho senya tikoloho, li-invoice tse fosahetseng le ho etsa boitsebiso bo fosahetseng. Ka 2017, phallo ea Afrika e bile $203 billion, moo $32.4 billion e neng e le ka bomenemene ba mekhatlo ea machaba (Curtis, 2017). Ka 2010, mekhatlo ea machaba e ile ea qoba $40 bilione 'me ea qhekella $11 bilione ka theko e fosahetseng ea khoebo (Oxfam, 2015). Maemo a ho senyeha ha tikoloho a entsoeng ke mekhatlo ea lichaba tse ngata mosebetsing oa ho sebelisa mehloli ea tlhaho e mpefatsa lintoa tsa tikoloho Afrika (Akiwumi & Butler, 2008; Bassey, 2012; Edwards et al., 2014). Likoporasi tsa lichaba tse ngata li boetse li baka bofuma ka ho nkela naha, ho falla ha sechaba le basebetsi ba merafong ho tloha masimong a bona a tumello moo mohlala ba sebelisang liminerale, oli le khase hampe. Lintlha tsena kaofela li fetola Afrika leraba la likhohlano. Batho ba qheletsoeng ka thoko ha ba na boikhethelo haese feela ba ho theha kapa ho kenela lihlopha tse hlometseng hore ba pholohe.
In Thuto e tsosang, Naomi Klein (2007) o pepesa kamoo, ho tloha lilemong tsa bo-1950, maano a marang-rang a sa lefelloeng a renang lefats'eng ka ho tsamaisa lits'oants'o tsa likoluoa. Ka mor'a September 11, Ntoa ea Lefatše ea Bokhukhuni ea United States e ile ea lebisa tlhaselong ea Iraq, e ileng ea fella ka leano le ileng la lumella Shell le BP ho laola tšebeliso ea oli ea Iraq le hore liindasteri tsa ntoa tsa Amerika li rue molemo ka ho rekisa libetsa tsa tsona. Thuto e ts'oanang e ts'oenyehileng e ile ea sebelisoa ka 2007, ha US Africa Command (AFRICOM) e ne e theoa ho loantša bokhukhuni le likhohlano k'honthinenteng. Na bokhukhuni le likhohlano tsa libetsa li eketsehile kapa li fokotsehile ho tloha ka 2007? Balekane ba United States le lira kaofela ba matha ka mabifi ho laola Afrika, lisebelisoa tsa eona le 'maraka. The Africompublicaffairs (2016) e ananetse phephetso ya China le Russia ka tsela e latelang:
Linaha tse ling li ntse li tsoela pele ho tsetela linaheng tsa Afrika ho ntšetsa pele merero ea tsona, China e tsepamisitse maikutlo ho fumaneng lisebelisoa tsa tlhaho le lisebelisoa tse hlokahalang ho tšehetsa tlhahiso ha China le Russia li rekisa litsamaiso tsa libetsa le ho batla ho theha litumellano tsa khoebo le ts'ireletso Afrika. Ha China le Russia li ntse li atolosa tšusumetso ea tsona Afrika, linaha ka bobeli li leka ho fumana 'matla a bonolo' Afrika ho matlafatsa matla a tsona mekhatlong ea machaba. (leq. 12)
Tlholisano ea Amerika bakeng sa lisebelisoa tsa Afrika e ile ea totobatsoa ha tsamaiso ea Moporesidente Clinton e theha Molao oa Kholo le Monyetla oa Afrika (AGOA), o neng o tlotloa ka ho fa Afrika monyetla oa ho kena 'marakeng oa Amerika. Ha e le hantle, Afrika e romela oli, liminerale le lisebelisoa tse ling ho US mme e sebetsa e le 'maraka oa lihlahisoa tsa US. Ka 2014, mokhatlo oa basebetsi oa United States o tlalehile hore "oli le khase li etsa pakeng tsa 80% le 90% ea lihlahisoa tsohle tse romeloang tlas'a AGOA" (AFL-CIO Solidarity Center, 2014, p. 2).
Ho ntšoa ha thepa ea Afrika ho tla ka litšenyehelo tse phahameng. Litumellano tsa machaba tse laolang lipatlisiso tsa liminerale le oli ha ho mohla li sebelisoang lichabeng tse tsoelang pele moruong. Ntoa, phalliso, tšenyeho ea tikoloho, le tlhekefetso ea litokelo le seriti sa batho ke tsona mekhoa ea tšebetso. Lichaba tse ruileng ka matlotlo a tlhaho tse kang Angola, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Mali, le linaha tse ling tsa Sahara Bophirimela li kenelletse lintoeng tseo hangata li bitsoang tsa ‘morabe’ ke bahlabani ba masholu. Rafilosofi le setsebi sa kahisano sa Slovenia, Slavoj Žižek (2010) o hlokometse hore:
Ka tlas'a sefahleho sa ntoa ea merabe, re … re lemoha tšebetso ea bokhaphithaliste ba lefats'e… E mong le e mong oa balaoli ba ntoa o na le likhokahano tsa khoebo le khamphani ea kantle ho naha kapa koporasi e sebelisang leruo la merafo haholo tikolohong eo. Tokisetso ena e tšoanela mahlakore ka bobeli: mekhatlo e fumana litokelo tsa merafo ntle le lekhetho le mathata a mang, ha balaoli ba ntoa ba rua. … lebala ka boitšoaro bo hlephileng ba baahi ba lehae, tlosa feela lik'hamphani tsa theknoloji e phahameng tsa kantle ho naha 'me sehlopha sohle sa lintoa tsa merabe se hlohlelletsoang ke litakatso tsa khale sea arohana…Ho na le lefifi le leholo morung o teteaneng oa Congo, empa lisosa li sebakeng se seng, liofising tse khanyang tsa batsamaisi ba libanka tsa rona le lik'hamphani tsa theknoloji e phahameng. (maq. 163-164)
Ntoa le tšebeliso e mpe ea lisebelisoa li mpefatsa phetoho ea maemo a leholimo. Ho ntšoa ha liminerale le oli, koetliso ea sesole, le litšila tse silafatsang libetsa li senya mefuta-futa ea lintho tse phelang, li silafatsa metsi, mobu le moea (Dudka & Adriano, 1997; Lawrence et al., 2015; Le Billon, 2001). Tšenyo ea tikoloho e ntse e eketseha lintoa tsa lisebelisoa le ho falla ha batho ba bangata ha mehloli ea boipheliso e ntse e haella. Khakanyo ea morao-rao ea Mokhatlo oa Machaba a Kopaneng oa Lijo le Temo e bontša hore batho ba limilione tse 795 ba bolaoa ke tlala ka lebaka la lintoa tsa lefatše ka bophara le phetoho ea maemo a leholimo (Lenaneo la Lefatše la Lijo, 2019). Baetsi ba maano ba lefats'e ha ho mohla ba kileng ba bitsa lik'hamphani tsa merafo le liindasteri tsa ntoa ho ikarabella. Ha ba nke tšebeliso e mpe ea lisebelisoa e le pefo. Litlamorao tsa lintoa le ho ntšoa ha lisebelisoa ha li boleloe le ho Tumellano ea Paris le Kyoto Protocol.
Afrika hape ke sebaka sa ho lahla le ho reka lintho tse lahloang ke bophirima. Ka selemo sa 2018, ha Rwanda e hana ho kenya liaparo tsa letsoho tsa bobeli tsa US ho ile ha qhoma ntoa (John, 2018). US e bolela hore AGOA e tsoela Afrika molemo, leha ho le joalo likamano tsa khoebo li sebeletsa lithahasello tsa US le ho fokotsa menyetla ea Afrika ea tsoelo-pele (Melber, 2009). Tlas'a AGOA, linaha tsa Afrika li tlamehile ho se kenelle liketsong tse nyenyefatsang lithahasello tsa US. Likhaello tsa khoebo le phallo ea chelete li lebisa ho se leka-lekaneng moruong le ho khathatsa maemo a bophelo a batho ba futsanehileng (Carmody, 2016; Mac Ginty & Williams, 2009). Bahatelli ba likamano tsa khoebo ho Global North ba etsa sohle se molemong oa bona le ho kokobetsa matsoalo a bona ka thuso ea kantle ho naha, e bitsoang Easterly (2006) e le moroalo oa makhooa.
Joalo ka mehleng ea bokolone, bokapitale le tlatlapo ea moruo ea Afrika li ntse li tsoela pele ho senya meetlo le litekanyetso tsa matsoalloa. Mohlala, Botho ba Afrika (botho) le tlhokomelo bakeng sa molemo o tloaelehileng ho kenyeletsoa le tikoloho li nketsoe sebaka ke meharo ea bokapitale. Baetapele ba lipolotiki ke ka mor'a ho iphahamisa, eseng ho sebeletsa batho (Utas, 2012; Van Wyk, 2007). Ali Mazrui (2007) o hlokomela hore le lipeo tsa lintoa tse atileng "li ka har'a moferefere oa sechaba oo bokoloniale bo bo entseng Afrika ka ho senya" litekanyetso tsa setso ho kenyelletsa le "mekhoa ea khale ea ho rarolla likhohlano ntle le ho theha [baemeli ba sebaka sa bona] sebakeng sa bona" (leq. 480). Ka ho tšoanang, mekhoa e tloaelehileng ea ho sireletsa tikoloho e ne e nkoa e le ea moea le ea bodiabolose, ’me e ile ea senngoa ka lebitso la ho rapela Molimo a le mong. Ha mekhatlo ea setso le litekanyetso li senyeha, hammoho le bofutsana, likhohlano li ke ke tsa qojoa.
Boemong ba naha, pefo ea sebopeho Afrika e kenyelelitsoe ho seo Laurie Nathan (2000) a ileng a se bitsa "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse" (leq. 189) - puso ea bolaoli, ho behelloa ka thōko ha batho ho busa linaha tsa bona, bofutsana ba moruo oa sechaba le ho se lekane ho matlafalitsoeng ke bobolu le leeme, le linaha tse sa sebetseng hantle tse nang le mekhatlo e futsanehileng e hlolehang ho tiisa taolo ea molao. Ho hloleha ha boetapele ke molato oa ho matlafatsa 'Bapalami ba Bane ba Lipere'. Linaheng tse ngata tsa Afrika, ofisi ea sechaba ke mokhoa oa ho iphahamisa. Lichelete tsa naha, lisebelisuoa esita le lithuso tse tsoang linaheng tse ling li tsoela batho ba phahameng lipolotiking feela molemo.
Lethathamo la ho hloka toka ha meralo e mahlonoko maemong a naha le a machaba le ke ke la thijoa. Keketseho ea ho se lekane lipolotiking le moruong ho tla mpefatsa likhohlano le tšenyo ea tikoloho. Ha ho na motho ea batlang ho ba boemong bo tlaase, 'me ba nang le tokelo ha baa ikemisetsa ho arolelana boemo bo phahameng ba bolaoli ba sechaba bakeng sa ho ntlafatsa melemo e tloaelehileng. Ba khaotsoeng ba batla ho fumana matla a eketsehileng le ho etsolla kamano. Pefo ea meralo e ka fetoloa joang ho theha khotso ea naha le ea lefats'e?
Phetoho ea Sebopeho
Mekhoa e tloaelehileng ea taolo ea likhohlano, kaho ea khotso, le phokotso ea tikoloho maemong a macro-le manyane a sechaba e ea hloleha hobane ha e rarolle mekhoa ea pefo. Ho romela melaetsa, liqeto tsa Machaba a Kopaneng, lisebelisoa tsa machaba, litumellano tsa khotso tse saennoeng, le melao-motheo ea naha li thehoa ntle le phetoho ea sebele. Mehaho ha e fetohe. Phetoho ea Sebopeho (ST) "e tlisa mahloriso a pono eo re eang ho eona - kaho ea likamano tse phetseng hantle le sechaba, sebakeng sa heno le lefatšeng ka bophara. Sepheo sena se hloka phetoho ea sebele litseleng tsa rona tsa joale tsa likamano "(Lederach, 2003, p. 5). Phetoho e nahana 'me e arabela "ho fokotseha le ho phalla ha likhohlano tsa sechaba e le menyetla e fanang ka bophelo bakeng sa ho theha mekhoa ea phetoho e hahang e fokotsang pefo, ho eketsa toka likamanong tse tobileng le mekhoa ea sechaba, le ho arabela mathateng a sebele a bophelo likamanong tsa batho" (Lederach, 2003, leqepheng la 14).
Dugan (1996) o fana ka maikutlo a mofuta oa paradigm o hlophisitsoeng ho fetola sebopeho ka ho rarolla mathata, likamano, litsamaiso le litsamaiso. Körppen and Ropers (2011) ba fana ka maikutlo a "ho atamela tsamaiso eohle" le "ho nahana ka mokhoa o rarahaneng e le meta-framework" (leq. 15) ho fetola mehaho le litsamaiso tse hatellang le tse sa sebetseng. Phetoho ea meralo e ikemiselitse ho fokotsa pefo ea sebopeho le ho eketsa toka mabapi le litaba, likamano, litsamaiso le litsamaiso tse bakang bofuma, ho se lekane le mahlomola. E boetse e matlafatsa batho ho lemoha bokhoni ba bona.
Bakeng sa Afrika, ke fana ka maikutlo a thuto e le motheo oa phetoho ea meralo (ST). Ho ruta batho ba nang le litsebo tsa ho hlahloba le tsebo ea litokelo le seriti sa bona ho tla ba nolofalletsa ho hlaolela kutloisiso e tebileng le ho lemoha maemo a ho hloka toka. Batho ba hateletsoeng ba itokolla ka matsoalo a bona ho batla tokoloho le ho ikemela (Freire, 1998). Phetoho ea sebopeho ha se mokhoa empa ke phetoho ea maikutlo "ho sheba le ho bona ... ka nģ'ane ho mathata a hona joale ho ea ho mokhoa o tebileng oa likamano, ... mekhoa le moelelo oa motheo ..., le moralo oa maikutlo (Lederach, 2003, leq. 8-9). Ka mohlala, Maafrika a hloka ho hlokomeloa ka mekhoa ea khatello le likamano tse itšetlehileng ka eona pakeng tsa Global North le Global South, tlhekefetso ea bokolone le ea neocolonial, khethollo ea morabe, tlhekefetso e tsoelang pele le khethollo e sa ba kenyelletseng ho etsoa ha maano a lefats'e. Haeba Maafrika ho pholletsa le k'honthinente a ka tseba ka kotsi ea ho tlatlapuoa le ho hlohlelletsa sesole ke mebuso ea Bophirimela, le ho etsa boipelaetso bo pharaletseng ba k'honthinente, tlhekefetso eo e ka emisa.
Ho bohlokoa hore batho ba tlase-tlase ho tseba litokelo le boikarabello ba bona joalo ka litho tsa sechaba sa lefats'e. Tsebo ea lisebelisoa le mekhatlo ea machaba le ea k'honthinente e kang Machaba a Kopaneng, Mokhatlo oa Afrika, selekane sa Machaba a Kopaneng, Phatlalatso ea Machaba ea Litokelo tsa Botho (UDHR) le molao oa Afrika oa litokelo tsa botho e lokela ho ba tsebo e akaretsang e nolofalletsang batho ho batla kopo ea bona e lekanang. . Ka mokhoa o ts'oanang, thuto ea boetapele le tlhokomelo molemong oa bohle e lokela ho ba tlamo. Boetapele bo bobe ke sesupo sa seo ditjhaba tsa Maafrika di leng sona. Botho (botho) le tlhokomelo bakeng sa molemo o tšoanang li nketsoe sebaka ke meharo ea bokapitale, boinotšing le ho hlōleha ho feletseng ho ananela le ho keteka Boafrika le mekhoa ea meetlo ea lehae e entseng hore lichaba tsa Afrika li phele hamonate ka lilemo tse likete.
Hape ke habohlokoa ho ruta pelo, "bohareng ba maikutlo, maikutlo, le bophelo ba moea ... sebaka seo re tsoang ho sona le seo re khutlelang ho sona bakeng sa tataiso, lijo le tataiso" (Lederach, 2003, p. 17). Pelo e bohlokoa ho fetola likamano, phetoho ea maemo a leholimo le seoa sa ntoa. Batho ba leka ho fetola sechaba ka liphetohelo tse mabifi le lintoa joalokaha li bonahatsoa liketsahalong tsa lintoa tsa lefatše le tsa lehae, le merusu e kang Sudan le Algeria. Motsoako oa hlooho le pelo li ne li tla bontša ho se amehe ha pefo eseng feela hobane e se na boitšoaro, empa pefo e tsoala pefo e eketsehileng. Ho hloka pefo ho tsoa pelong e susumetsoang ke kutloelo-bohloko le kutloelo-bohloko. Baetapele ba baholo ba kang Nelson Mandela ba ile ba kopanya hlooho le pelo ho baka phetoho. Leha ho le joalo, lefatšeng ka bophara re tobane le bothata ba boetapele, litsamaiso tse ntle tsa thuto le mehlala. Kahoo, thuto e lokela ho tlatselletsoa ka ho hlophisa bocha likarolo tsohle tsa bophelo (litso, likamano tsa sechaba, lipolotiki, moruo, tsela eo re nahanang le ho phela ka eona malapeng le lichabeng).
Takatso ea khotso e lokela ho etelletsoa pele maemong ohle a sechaba. Kaho ea likamano tse ntle tsa batho ke tlhokahalo ea ho aha khotso ka lebaka la phetoho ea mekhatlo le ea sechaba. Kaha likhohlano li etsahala lichabeng tsa batho, tsebo ea lipuisano, ho khothalletsa kutloisiso le boikutlo ba ho hlōla ho laola le ho rarolla likhohlano li hloka ho matlafatsoa ho tloha bongoaneng. Phetoho ea sebopeho maemong a maholo le a manyane a sechaba a hlokahala ka potlako ho rarolla mathata a sechaba ka har'a litsi le mekhoa e metle. "Ho theha lefatše le se nang mabifi ho ne ho tla itšetleha ka ho felisa ho hloka toka ha sechaba le moruo le tlhekefetso ea tikoloho" (Jeong, 2000, p. 370).
Phetoho ea meaho feela ha e lebise khotsong, haeba e sa lateloe kapa e etelletsoe pele ke phetoho ea botho le phetoho ea lipelo. Ke phetoho ea botho feela e ka tlisang phetoho ea meralo e hlokahalang bakeng sa khotso le tšireletseho ea naha le ea lefatše ka bophara. Ho fetoha ho tloha meharo ea bokapitale, tlholisano, boinotšing le khethollo ea morabe khubung ea maano, litsamaiso le litsamaiso tse nyenyefatsang le ho nyenyefatsa batho ba mathokong a naha le a kahare ho bakoa ke lithuto tse tšoarellang le tse khotsofatsang tsa ho itlhahloba ka hare le ka ntle. Ho seng joalo, mekhatlo le litsamaiso li tla tsoela pele ho jara le ho matlafatsa mathata a rona.
Qetellong, tjantjello ea khotso le tšireletseho ea lefats'e e ntse e tsoela pele ka lebaka la tlholisano ea bokapitale, mathata a tikoloho, lintoa, bosholu ba mehloli ea mekhatlo ea lichaba tse ngata le bochaba bo ntseng bo eketseha. Ba khaotsoeng ba sala ba se na boikhethelo haese ho falla, ho kena likhohlanong tsa libetsa le bokhukhuni. Boemo bona bo hloka mekhatlo ea toka ea sechaba ho batla pheletso ea masetla-pelo ana. E boetse e batla diketso tse tla netefatsa hore ditlhoko tsa mantlha tsa motho e mong le e mong di a kgotsofatswa, ho kenyeletswa tekatekano le ho matlafatsa batho bohle ho lemoha bokgoni ba bona. Ha ho se na boetapele ba lefats'e le ba naha, batho ba tsoang ka tlase ba anngoeng ke pefo ea meralo (SV) ba hloka ho rutoa ho etella pele ts'ebetso ea phetoho. Ho fothola meharo e hlahisoang ke bokapitale le maano a lefats'e a matlafatsang tšebeliso le ho khesoa ha Afrika ho tla ntšetsa pele ntoa ea tsamaiso e 'ngoe ea lefatše e tsotellang litlhoko le boiketlo ba batho bohle le tikoloho.
References
Setsi sa Tšebelisano sa AFL-CIO. (2014). Ho aha leano la litokelo tsa basebetsi le ho kenyeletsa kgolo— ponelopele e ntjha ya ketso ya kgolo le menyetla ya Aforika (AGOA). E nkiloe ho https://aflcio.org/sites/default/files/2017-03/AGOA%2Bno%2Bbug.pdf
Litaba tsa Afrika. (2016). Gen. Rodriguez o fana ka polelo ea boemo ba 2016. United States Africa Taelo. E nkiloe ho https://www.africom.mil/media-room/photo/28038/gen-rodriguez-delivers-2016-posture-statement
Akiwumi, FA, & Butler, DR (2008). Phetoho ea merafo le tikoloho Sierra Leone, Afrika Bophirima: Thuto ea hole le hydrogeomorphological. Tekolo le Tekolo ea Tikoloho, 142(1-3), 309-318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9930-9
Ballard, R., Habib, A., Valodia, I., & Zuern, E. (2005). Ho ikopanya ha lichaba tsa lefatše, ho behelloa ka thōko le mekhatlo ea kajeno ea sechaba Afrika Boroa. Litaba tsa Afrika, 104(417), 615-634. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adi069
Bassey, N. (2012). Ho pheha k'honthinente: Ho ntšoa ho senyang le koluoa ea boemo ba leholimo Afrika. Cape Town: Pambazuka Press.
Botes, JM (2003). Phetoho ea sebopeho. Ho S. Cheldeline, D. Druckman, & L. Fast (Eds.), Khohlano: Ho tloha tlhahlobong ho ea ho ho kenella (maq. 358-379). New York: Tsoela pele.
Bretthauer, JM (2018). Phetoho ea boemo ba leholimo le likhohlano tsa lisebelisoa: Karolo ea khaello. New York, NY: Routledge.
Burchill, S., Linklater, A., Devetak, R., Donnelly, J., Nardin T., Paterson M., Reus-Smit, C., & True, J. (2013). Likhopolo tsa likamano tsa machaba (Mongoli oa 5). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Burton, JW (1990). Khohlano: Theory ea litlhoko tsa batho. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Carmody, P. (2016). Phephetso e ncha ea Afrika. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
Cook-Huffman, C. (2009). Seabo sa boitshupo khohlanong. Ho D. Sandole, S. Byrne, I. Sandole Staroste, & J. Senehi (Bahlophisi). Bukana ea tlhahlobo le tharollo ea likhohlano (maq. 19-31). New York: Routledge.
Couses, EM (2001). Selelekela. Ho EM Cousens, C. Kumar, & K. Wermester (Eds.), Ho aha khotso joaloka lipolotiki: Ho Hlaolela Khotso lichabeng tse fokolang (maq. 1-20). London: Lynne Rienner.
Curtis, M., & Jones, T. (2017). Litlaleho tse tšepahalang tsa 2017: Lefatše le rua molemo joang ho tsoa Afrika maruo. E nkiloe ho http://curtisresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/honest_accounts_2017_web_final.pdf
Edwards, DP, Sloan, S., Weng, L., Dirks, P., Sayer, J., & Laurance, WF (2014). Merafo le tikoloho ea Afrika. Mangolo a Paballo, 7(3). 302-311. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12076
Dudka, S., & Adriano, DC (1997). Liphello tsa tikoloho tsa merafo le ts'ebetso ea tšepe ea tšepe: Tlhahlobo. Journal of Environmental Quality, 26(3), 590-602. doi:10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030003x
Dugan, MA (1996). Khopolo-taba ea likhohlano. Koranta ea Boetapele: Basali ba Boetapele, 1(1), 9-20.
Easterly, W. (2006). Moroalo oa makhooa: Hobaneng boiteko ba Bophirimela ba ho thusa ba bang bo entse joalo ho kula haholo mme ho fokola haholo. New York: Penguin.
Fjelde, H., & Uexkull, N. (2012). Lintho tse susumetsang maemo a leholimo: Litšitiso tsa pula, ho ba kotsing le likhohlano tsa sechaba ka har'a Afrika e ka boroa ho Sahara. Geography ea Lipolotiki, 31(7), 444-453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2012.08.004
Foucault, M. (1982). Taba le matla. Patlisiso e hlokolosi, 8(4), 777-795.
Freire, P. (1998). Thuto ea tokoloho: Boitšoaro, demokrasi, le sebete sa sechaba. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Galtung, J. (1969). Lipatlisiso tsa Pefo, khotso le khotso. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3), 167-191 https://doi.org/10.1177/002234336900600301
Green, D. (2008). Ho tloha bofutsaneng ho ea ho matla: Kamoo baahi ba mafolofolo le linaha tse sebetsang li ka fetohang lefats'e. Oxford: Oxfam International.
Gutiérrez, G. (1985). Re nwa didiba tsa rona (Mongoli oa 4). New York: Orbis.
Jeong, HW (2000). Lithuto tsa khotso le likhohlano: Selelekela. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Keenan, T. (1987). I. "Phapang" ea Tsebo le Matla: Ho Bala Foucault ka Leeme. Khopolo ea Lipolotiki, 15(1), 5-37.
Klein, N. (2007). Thuto e makatsang: Ho phahama ha bokhaphithaliste ba likoluoa. Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf Canada.
Klein, N. (2014). Sena se fetola ntho e 'ngoe le e 'ngoe: Bokapitale khahlanong le boemo ba leholimo. New York: Simon le Schuster.
Körppen, D., & Ropers, N. (2011). Selelekela: Ho sebetsana le maemo a rarahaneng a phetoho ea likhohlano. Ho D. Körppen, P. Nobert, & HJ Giessmann (Eds.), The non-linearity of peace systems: Theory and practice of systematic conflict transformation (maq. 11-23). Opladen: Barbara Budrich Bahatisi.
Lawrence, MJ, Stemberger, HLJ, Zolderdo, AJ, Struthers, DP, & Cooke, SJ (2015). Liphello tsa ntoa ea sejoale-joale le mesebetsi ea sesole ho mefuta-futa ea lihloliloeng le tikoloho. Maikutlo a Tikoloho, 23(4), 443-460. https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2015-0039
Le Billon, P. (2001). Ecology ea ntoa ea lipolotiki: Lisebelisoa tsa tlhaho le likhohlano tsa libetsa. Geography ea Lipolotiki, 20(5), 561–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-6298(01)00015-4
Lederach, JP (2003). Buka e nyane ea phetoho ea likhohlano. Ho kopanela liphate, PA: Libuka tse Molemo.
Mac Ginty, R., & Williams, A. (2009). Khohlano le ntshetsopele. New York: Routledge.
Maslow, AH (1943). Khohlano, pherekano, le khopolo ea tšokelo. Journal of Abnormal le Psychology ea Sechaba, 38(1), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054634
Mazrui, AA (2007). Bochaba, morabe, le pefo. Ho WE Abraham, A. Irele, I. Menkiti, & K. Wiredu (Eds.), Motsoalle oa filosofi ea Afrika (maq. 472-482). Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Melber, H. (2009). Mebuso ea khoebo ea lefats'e le polarity e mengata. Ho R. Southhall, & H. Melber (Eds.), Leqheka le lecha la Afrika: Imperialism, matsete le nts'etsopele (maq. 56-82). Scottsville: UKZN Press.
Nathan, L. (2000). “Bapalami ba bane ba lipere tsa apocalypse”: Lisosa tsa sebopeho sa tlokotsi le pefo Afrika. Khotso le Phetoho, 25(2), 188-207. https://doi.org/10.1111/0149-0508.00150
Oxfam. (2015). Afrika: Ho phahama bakeng sa ba seng bakae. E nkiloe ho https://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/africa-rising-for-the-few-556037
Rodney, W. (1981). Kamoo Europe e ileng ea ntlafala ka teng Afrika (Rev. Ed.). Washington, DC: Howard University Press.
Southall, R., & Melber, H. (2009). Phephetso e ncha bakeng sa Afrika? Imperialism, matsete le Nts'etsopele. Scottsville, Afrika Boroa: Univesithi ea KwaZulu-Natal Press.
John, T. (2018, May 28). US le Rwanda li qabane joang ka lebaka la liaparo tsa khale. BBC News. Mohloli: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44252655
Trondheim. (2019). Ho etsa hore mefuta-futa ea lihloliloeng e be taba: Tsebo le tsebo bakeng sa kamora 2020 moralo oa lefats'e oa mefuta-futa ea lihloliloeng [Tlaleho ea Litulo tsa Litulo tse tsoang Sebokeng sa Borobong sa Trondheim]. E nkiloe ho https://trondheimconference.org/conference-reports
Utas, M. (2012). Selelekela: Bigmanity le taolo ea marang-rang likhohlanong tsa Afrika. Ho M. Utas (Mong.), Likhohlano tsa Afrika le matla a sa reroang: Banna ba baholo le marang-rang (maq. 1-34). London/New York: Libuka tsa Zed.
Van Wyk, J.-A. (2007). Baetapele ba lipolotiki Afrika: Bapresidente, bareki kapa ba etsang phaello? Moafrika Setsi sa Tharollo e Matla ea Likhohlano (ACCORD)'s Occasional Paper Series, 2(1), 1-38 . E nkiloe ho https://www.accord.org.za/publication/political-leaders-africa/.
Lenaneo la Lefatše la Lijo. (2019). 2019 - 'Mapa oa Tlala. E nkiloe ho https://www.wfp.org/publications/2019-hunger-map
Žižek, S. (2010). Ho phela mehleng ya bofelo. New York: Ho feta moo.
