Ukudibanisa uBundlobongela boLwakhiwo, iiNgxwabangxwaba kunye noLonakaliswa kweNdalo
Abstract:
Eli nqaku liphonononga indlela ukungalingani kwezentlalo, ezopolitiko, ezoqoqosho kunye nezenkcubeko ezibangela ungquzulwano lwesakhiwo olubonisa ukufezekiswa kwehlabathi. Njengoluntu lwehlabathi, sinxibelelene ngakumbi kunangaphambili. Iinkqubo zentlalo yelizwe kunye nehlabathi jikelele ezenza amaziko kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo ejongela phantsi uninzi ngelixa ixhamla incinci ayisekho. Ukhukuliseko lwentlalo ngenxa yokungahoywa kwezopolitiko noqoqosho kukhokelela kwiingxabano ezithatha ixesha elide, ukufuduka kwabantu abaninzi, kunye nokuwohloka kwemekobume nto leyo inkqubo yeneo-liberal yezopolitiko iyasilela ukuyisombulula. Ugxininise kwi-Afrika, iphepha lixoxa ngezizathu zobundlobongela besakhiwo kwaye licebisa ukuba lingaguqulwa njani libe yintsebenziswano ehambelanayo. Uxolo oluzinzileyo lwehlabathi jikelele lufuna utshintsho lweparadigm ukuya: (1) endaweni yeeparadigms zokhuseleko lwelizwe kunye nokhuseleko olufanayo, kugxininise uphuhliso loluntu oludibeneyo kubo bonke abantu, ingcamango yobuntu ekwabelwana ngayo kunye nesiphelo esifanayo; (2) ukudala uqoqosho kunye neenkqubo zezopolitiko ezibeka phambili abantu kunye nempilo yeplanethi ngaphezu kwenzuzo.
Khuphela Eli nqaku
Ukucetyiswa:
Mayanja, ENB (2022). Ukudibanisa ubundlobongela obukhoyo, iingxabano kunye nomonakalo wendalo. Ijenali yokuHlala Ndawonye, 7(1), 15-25.
Ulwazi lwenqaku:
@Inqaku{Mayanja2022}
Isihloko = {Ukunxulumanisa ubuNdlobongela boLwakhiwo, iiNgxwabangxwaba kunye nomonakalo wendalo}
Umbhali = {Evelyn Namakula B. Mayanja}
Url = {https://icermediation.org/linking-structural-violence-conflicts-and-ecological-damages/}
ISSN = {2373-6615 (Shicilela); 2373-6631 (kwi-intanethi)}
Unyaka = {2022}
Umhla = {2022-12-10}
Ijenali = {Ijenali yokuHlala kunye}
Umthamo = {7}
Inani = {1}
Amaphepha = {15-25}
Umshicileli = {Iziko leHlabathi le-Ethno-Religious Mediation}
Idilesi = {White Plains, New York}
Uhlelo = {2022}.
intshayelelo
Ukungabikho kokusesikweni kwezakhiwo ngoyena nobangela wongquzulwano oluthabatha ithuba elide lwangaphakathi nehlabathi. Zifakwe kwiinkqubo ezingalinganiyo zentlalo nezopolitiko kunye nezoqoqosho kunye neenkqubo ezisezantsi eziqinisa ukuxhaphazwa kunye nokunyanzeliswa ngabaphezulu bezopolitiko, iinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe (MNCs), kunye namazwe anamandla (Jeong, 2000). Ubuthanga, ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi, ubukhapitali nokubawa kuye kwaphembelela ukutshatyalaliswa kwamaziko angokwesithethe nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha eyayikhusela imekobume, kwathintela kwaza kwacombulula iingxabano. Ukhuphiswano lwamandla ezopolitiko, ezoqoqosho, ezempi kunye nobuchwepheshe buthintela ababuthathaka kwiimfuno zabo ezisisiseko, kwaye kubangela ukunyanzeliswa kobuntu kunye nokuphulwa kwesidima kunye nelungelo labo. Kumazwe ngamazwe, amaziko angasebenziyo kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo yamazwe angundoqo aqinisa ukuxhaphazwa kwezizwe ezikude. Kwinqanaba lesizwe, ubuzwilakhe, ubuzwe obutshabalalisayo, nezopolitiko zesisu, ezigcinwe ngokunyanzelwa kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo enceda abantu ababalaseleyo kwezopolitiko, zizala unxunguphalo, zishiya ababuthathaka bengenandlela yokukhetha ngaphandle kokusetyenziswa kogonyamelo njengendlela yokuthetha inyaniso. amandla.
Ukungabikho kokusesikweni kwesakhiwo kunye nobundlobongela buninzi njengoko inqanaba ngalinye lengxabano libandakanya imilinganiselo yesakhiwo efakwe kwiinkqubo kunye neenkqubo eziphantsi apho imigaqo-nkqubo yenziwa khona. UMaire Dugan (1996), umphandi woxolo kunye nengcali yethiyori, wayila imodeli ye'nested paradigm' waza wachonga amanqanaba amane ongquzulwano: imiba ekungquzulwano; ubudlelwane obubandakanyekayo; inkqubo engaphantsi apho ingxaki ikhoyo; kunye neenkqubo zenkqubo. UDugan uthi:
Ungquzulwano lwamanqanaba enkqubo engaphantsi kwenkqubo ludla ngokubonisa ungquzulwano lwenkqubo ebanzi, ezisa ukungalingani okunjengobuhlanga, ucalucalulo ngokwesini, ucalucalulo, nokungavisisani kwabantu abathandanayo kwiiofisi nakwimizi-mveliso esisebenza kuyo, izindlu zonqulo esithandaza kuzo, iinkundla namanxweme esidlala kuwo. , izitrato esidibana kuzo nabamelwane bethu, kwanezindlu esihlala kuzo. Iingxaki zenqanaba lenkqubo engaphantsi nazo zisenokubakho ngokwazo, aziveliswanga ziinyani ezibanzi zoluntu. (iphe. 16)
Eli nqaku lithetha ngokungabikho kokusesikweni kwezizwe ngezizwe nakwilizwe laseAfrika. UWalter Rodney (1981) uqaphela imithombo emibini yobundlobongela obuphathelele kwezendalo eAfrika obunqanda inkqubela yelizwekazi: “ukusebenza kwenkqubo yama impiriyali” efunxa ubutyebi beAfrika, nto leyo eyenza ukuba ilizwekazi lingakwazi ukuphuhlisa ubutyebi balo ngokukhawuleza; kunye “nabo balawula inkqubo kunye nabo basebenza njengee-arhente okanye bengaqondanga bahambisana nale nkqubo ixeliweyo. Ongxowankulu basentshona Yurophu ngabo bathe balwandisa uxhatshazo lwabo ukusuka ngaphakathi kweYurophu ukugubungela iAfrika iphela” (iphe. 27).
Ngale ntshayelelo, eli phepha liphonononga iithiyori ezithile ezixhasa ukungalingani kwezakhiwo, kulandele uhlalutyo lwemiba ebalulekileyo yobundlobongela obuphathelele kwesakhiwo ekufuneka isonjululwe. Iphepha liqukumbela ngeengcebiso zokuguqula ubundlobongela obukwisakhiwo.
Iingqwalasela zethiyori
Igama elithi ubundlobongela obuphathelele kwesakhiwo laqanjwa nguJohan Galtung (1969) xa ebhekisa kumaqonga ezentlalo: ezopolitiko, ezoqoqosho, ezenkcubeko, ezenkolo, kunye neenkqubo zomthetho ezithintela abantu, uluntu kunye noluntu ekufezekiseni amandla abo apheleleyo. Ubundlobongela obuphathelele kwesakhiwo “kukonakaliswa okuthintelekayo kweemfuno ezisisiseko zoluntu okanye …ukonakala kobomi bomntu, okuthoba iqondo lokwenyani apho umntu akwaziyo ukuhlangabezana neemfuno zakhe ngaphantsi koko ebenokuthi kwenzeke” (Galtung, 1969, p. 58) . Mhlawumbi, uGaltung (1969) wafumana eli gama kwimfundiso yezakwalizwi yenkululeko yaseLatin America yoo-1960 apho “izakhiwo zesono” okanye “isono soluntu” zazisetyenziselwa ukubhekisa kulwakhiwo oluye lwavelisa intswela-bulungisa ekuhlaleni kunye nokujongelwa phantsi kwamahlwempu. Abaxhasi bemfundiso yezakwalizwi yenkululeko baquka uBhishophu Omkhulu uOscar Romero noBawo uGustavo Gutiérrez. UGutiérrez (1985) wabhala: “ubuhlwempu buthetha ukufa… hayi ngokwasemzimbeni kuphela kodwa ngokwasengqondweni nangokwenkcubeko” (iphe. 9).
Izakhiwo ezingalinganiyo "zizona zizathu" zeengxabano (Cousens, 2001, p. 8). Ngamanye amaxesha, ubundlobongela obukwisakhiwo bubizwa ngokuba bubundlobongela bamaziko obuvela “kwimibutho yezentlalo, yezopolitiko, neyezoqoqosho” evumela “ukusasazwa okungalinganiyo kwamandla nemithombo” (Botes, 2003, p. 362). Ugonyamelo lwezakhiwo lunceda abo bambalwa abanelungelo kwaye lucinezela uninzi. UBurton (1990) unxulumanisa ubundlobongela obuphathelele kulwakhiwo kunye nokungabikho kobulungisa kwamaziko ezentlalo kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo ethintela abantu ukuba bahlangabezane neemfuno zabo ze-ontological. Izakhiwo zentlalo ziphuma "kwi-dialectic, okanye i-interplay, phakathi kwamaziko olwakhiwo kunye neshishini lomntu lokuvelisa kunye nokuqulunqa izinto ezintsha zesakhiwo" (Botes, 2003, p. 360). Zifakwe "kwizakhiwo zentlalo ezihlala kuzo zonke iindawo, eziqhelekileyo ngamaziko azinzile kunye namava aqhelekileyo" (Galtung, 1969, p. 59). Ngenxa yokuba ezo zakhiwo zibonakala ziqhelekile kwaye ziphantse zingasongeli, zihlala zingabonakali. I-Colonialism, ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwe-hemisphere ye-hemisphere ye-Afrika kunye nokungaphuhlisi, ukuthotywa kokusingqongileyo, ubuhlanga, i-white supremacism, i-neocolonialism, amashishini emfazwe afumana inzuzo kuphela xa kukho iimfazwe ubukhulu becala kwi-Global South, ukukhutshelwa ngaphandle kwe-Afrika ekuthathweni kwezigqibo kumazwe ngamazwe kunye ne-14 West. Amazwe aseAfrika ahlawula irhafu yobukoloniyali eFransi, yimizekelo embalwa nje. Ukusetyenziswa kobutyebi ngokomzekelo, kubangela umonakalo kwindalo, iingxabano nokufuduka kwabantu abaninzi. Nangona kunjalo, i ixesha elide ukuxhaphaza ubutyebi baseAfrika akujongwa njengoyena nobangela wengxaki exhaphakileyo yokufuduka kwabantu ababomi babo butshatyalaliswe yimpembelelo yobukhapitali behlabathi. Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuba ukurhweba ngamakhoboka kunye nekoloniyalizim yaphelisa amandla oluntu eAfrika kunye nemithombo yendalo. Ke ngoko, ubundlobongela besakhiwo eAfrika buqhagamshelwe kubukhoboka kunye nokungabikho kokusesikweni kwenkqubo yobukoloniyali, ubungxowankulu bobuhlanga, ukuxhaphaza, ingcinezelo, into kunye nokuthengiswa kwabaNtsundu.
Imiba ebalulekileyo yoBundlobongela beZakhiwo
Ngubani ofumana ntoni kwaye bangakanani abayifumanayo ibe ngumthombo wengxabano kwimbali yoluntu (Ballard et al., 2005; Burchill et al., 2013). Ngaba zikho izixhobo zokwanelisa iintswelo zabantu abazizigidi ezisisi-7.7 abakwesi sijikelezi-langa? Ikota yabemi beGlobal North isebenzisa i-80% yamandla kunye neentsimbi kwaye ikhupha imiqulu ephezulu yekhabhoni (Trondheim, 2019). Ngokomzekelo, i-United States, iJamani, i-China, kunye ne-Japan zivelisa ngaphezu kwesiqingatha semveliso yezoqoqosho yeplanethi, ngelixa i-75% yabemi bezizwe eziphantsi kwezoshishino zidla i-20%, kodwa zichatshazelwa ngakumbi kukufudumala kwehlabathi (Bretthauer, 2018; Klein, 2014) kunye nongquzulwano olusekwe kwizixhobo zokusebenza olubangelwa kukuxhatshazwa kongxowankulu. Oku kuquka ukusetyenziswa kwezimbiwa ezibalulekileyo ezichazwa njengeziguquguqukayo ekudambiseni utshintsho lwemozulu (Bretthauer, 2018; Fjelde & Uexkull, 2012). I-Afrika, nangona umvelisi omncinci wekhabhoni uchaphazeleka kakhulu kukutshintsha kwemozulu (i-Bassey, i-2012), kunye neemfazwe ezilandelanayo kunye nentlupheko, ekhokelela ekufudukeni kwabantu abaninzi. Ulwandle lweMeditera luye lwaba lingcwaba lezigidi zolutsha lwaseAfrika. Abo baxhamlayo kwizakhiwo ezonakalisa imo engqongileyo kwaye zibangele iimfazwe zithatha utshintsho lwemozulu njengenkohliso (Klein, 2014). Nangona kunjalo, uphuhliso, ukwakha uxolo, imigaqo-nkqubo yokunciphisa imozulu kunye nophando oluxhasayo zonke ziyilwe kwi-Global North ngaphandle kokubandakanya i-arhente ye-Afrika, iinkcubeko kunye neenqobo eziye zagcina uluntu ngamawaka eminyaka. Njengoko uFaucault (1982, 1987) exoxa, ubundlobongela obukhoyo bunxulunyaniswa namaziko olwazi lwamandla.
Ukhukuliseko lwenkcubeko kunye nexabiso oluphakanyiswe ziingcamango zesimanje kunye nehlabathi jikelele zinegalelo kwiingxabano zesakhiwo (Jeong, 2000). Amaziko ale mihla axhaswa bubungxowankulu, izithethe zedemokhrasi ekhululekileyo, ushishino nenkqubela phambili yezenzululwazi adala iindlela zokuphila nophuhliso olufanekiselwa ngamazwe aseNtshona, kodwa ayayitshabalalisa imvelaphi yenkcubeko, ezopolitiko nezoqoqosho. Ukuqonda ngokubanzi imo yangoku kunye nophuhliso kubonakaliswa ngokwemigaqo ye-consumerism, capitalism, i-urbanization kunye ne-personalism (Jeong, 2000; Mac Ginty & Williams, 2009).
Izakhiwo zezopolitiko, ezentlalo, kunye nezoqoqosho zidala iimeko zokusasazwa ngokulinganayo kobutyebi phakathi nangaphakathi kwezizwe (Green, 2008; Jeong, 2000; Mac Ginty & Williams, 2009). Ulawulo lwehlabathi lonke aluphumeleli ukudibanisa iingxoxo ezifana neSivumelwano saseParis malunga nokutshintsha kwemozulu, ukwenza imbali yentlupheko, ukufundisa imfundo yehlabathi jikelele, okanye ukwenza iinjongo zophuhliso lwewaka leminyaka, kunye neenjongo zophuhliso oluzinzileyo zibe nefuthe ngakumbi. Abo baxhamlayo kule nkqubo abaqondi ukuba ayisebenzi kakuhle. Udano, ngenxa yokwanda komsantsa phakathi kwezinto abantu abanazo kunye noko bakholelwa ukuba zibafanele kunye nokudodobala koqoqosho kunye nokutshintsha kwemozulu, kukwandisa ukujongelwa phantsi, ukufuduka kwabantu abaninzi, iimfazwe kunye nobunqolobi. Abantu ngabanye, amaqela, kunye nezizwe zifuna ukuba phezulu kulawulo lwamandla ezentlalo, ezoqoqosho, ezopolitiko, ezobuchwepheshe nawomkhosi, akhuthaza ukhuphiswano olunogonyamelo phakathi kwezizwe. IAfrika, etyebileyo ngobutyebi obunqwenelwa ngamandla amakhulu, ikwayindawo yentengiso echumileyo kumashishini emfazwe ukuze athengise izixhobo. Okumangalisayo kukuba, akukho mfazwe ithetha ukuba akukho ngeniso kwimizi-mveliso yezixhobo, imeko abangenakuyamkela. Imfazwe yile modus operandi ukufikelela kwimithombo ye-Afrika. Njengoko kusiliwa iimfazwe, imizi-mveliso yezixhobo yenza inzuzo. Kule nkqubo, ukusuka eMali ukuya kwiRiphabhlikhi yaseMbindi Afrika, iSouth Sudan, kunye neDemocratic Republic of Congo, ulutsha oluhlwempuzekileyo nolungasebenziyo lulahlelelwa ekubeni luyile okanye luzibandakanye namaqela axhobileyo nabanqolobi. Iimfuno ezisisiseko ezingafezekiyo, ezidityaniswa nokunyhashwa kwamalungelo oluntu kunye nokungaxhotyiswa, kunqande abantu ekubeni bafezekise amandla abo kwaye bakhokelela kwiingxabano zentlalo kunye neemfazwe (Cook-Huffman, 2009; Maslow, 1943).
Ukuphanga kunye nokulwa iAfrika yaqala ngokurhweba ngamakhoboka kunye nobukoloniyali, kwaye isaqhubeka nanamhlanje. Inkqubo yezoqoqosho yamazwe ngamazwe kunye neenkolelo zokuba urhwebo lwehlabathi, urhwebo oluvulelekileyo kunye notyalo-mali lwangaphandle luqhubela phambili ngokwedemokhrasi kuxhamle amazwe angundoqo kunye namaqumrhu asebenzisa ubutyebi bezizwe ezikude, ebabeka kwimeko yokuthumela ngaphandle imathiriyeli ekrwada kunye nokungenisa impahla esetyenziweyo (Carmody, 2016; Southall & Melber, 2009) ). Ukusukela ngeminyaka yoo-1980, phantsi komanyano lwamazwe ngamazwe, uhlaziyo lwemarike yasimahla, kunye nokudibanisa iAfrika kuqoqosho lwehlabathi, iWorld Trade Organisation (WTO) kunye neInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) zamisela 'iinkqubo zohlengahlengiso lwezakhiwo' (SAPs) kunye nezinyanzeliso zaseAfrika. amazwe abucala, akhulule kwaye ayeke ukulawula icandelo lezemigodi (Carmody, 2016, p. 21). Ngaphezu kwamazwe angama-30 ase-Afrika aye anyanzelwa ukuba ayile ngokutsha iikhowudi zawo zemigodi ukuze aququzelele utyalo-mali oluthe ngqo lwangaphandle (i-FDI) kunye nokutsalwa kwezixhobo zokusebenza. “Ukuba iindlela zangaphambili zokudityaniswa kweAfrika kuqoqosho lwezopolitiko lwehlabathi beziyingozi,…kuya kulandela ngokusengqiqweni ukuba kufuneka kuthathwe ukhathalelo ekuhlalutyweni ukuba ngaba kukho okanye akukho mzekelo wophuhliso wokudityaniswa kuqoqosho lwehlabathi lweAfrika, kunokuba luvulelwe iAfrika. ukuphanga ngakumbi” (Carmody, 2016, p. 24).
Ikhuselwe yimigaqo-nkqubo yehlabathi enyanzela amazwe aseAfrika ukuba atyale imali ngokuthe ngqo kumazwe angaphandle kwaye exhaswa ngoorhulumente basekhaya, iinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe (MNCs) ezixhaphaza izimbiwa zaseAfrika, ioli nobunye ubutyebi bendalo zenza njengoko ziphanga ubutyebi ngaphandle kohlwaywa. . Banyoba abantu bomthonyama bezopolitiko ukuze bancede abantu bangahlawuli irhafu, bafihle izenzo zabo zolwaphulo-mthetho, zonakalisa okusingqongileyo, ii-invoyisi ezingekho mthethweni kunye nobuxoki. Ngo-2017, ukuphuma kwe-Afrika kwafikelela kwi-203 yeebhiliyoni zeedola, apho i-32.4 yeebhiliyoni zeedola ibisenziwa ngobuqhetseba bamaqumrhu ezizwe ngezizwe (Curtis, 2017). Ngo-2010, iinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe zithintele i-40 yeebhiliyoni zeedola kwaye zaqhatha i-11 leebhiliyoni zeedola ngokurhweba ngokungafanelekanga (Oxfam, 2015). Amanqanaba okuthotywa kokusingqongileyo okudalwe ngamaqumrhu ezizwe ngezizwe kwinkqubo yokuxhaphaza ubutyebi bendalo kwandisa iimfazwe zokusingqongileyo e-Afrika (Akiwumi & Butler, 2008; Bassey, 2012; Edwards et al., 2014). Amaqumrhu ezizwe ngezizwe nawo avelisa intlupheko ngokuhluthwa komhlaba, ukufuduswa koluntu kunye nabasebenzi-mgodini kumhlaba wabo onemvume apho umzekelo baxhaphaza izimbiwa, i-oyile negesi. Zonke ezi zinto ziguqula iAfrika ibe ngumgibe wongquzulwano. Abantu abahluthwayo bashiywe bengenandlela yokukhetha ngaphandle kwalowo wokuseka okanye ukujoyina amaqela axhobileyo ukuze aphile.
In Imfundiso yokuThuswa, uNaomi Klein (2007) uveza indlela, ukususela ngo-1950, imigaqo-nkqubo yentengiso yasimahla ilawule ihlabathi ngokusasaza izothuso zentlekele. Ukulandela i-11 kaSeptemba, i-United States iMfazwe yeHlabathi yoBugrogrisi yakhokelela ekuhlaselweni kwe-Iraq, yafikelela incopho kumgaqo-nkqubo owawuvumela uShell kunye neBP ukuba balawule ukuxhaphazwa kwe-oyile yase-Iraq kunye namashishini emfazwe aseMelika ukuba azuze ngokuthengisa izixhobo zawo. Imfundiso efanayo yokothuka yasetyenziswa kwi-2007, xa i-US Africa Command (AFRICOM) yadalwa ukulwa nobunqolobi kunye neengxabano kwilizwekazi. Ngaba ubunqolobi kunye neengxabano ezixhobileyo ziye zanda okanye zancipha ukususela ngo-2007? Amaqabane aseMelika kunye neentshaba zonke zibaleka ngobundlobongela ukulawula iAfrika, izixhobo zayo kunye nentengiso. I-Africompublicaffairs (2016) iwuvume umceli mngeni we-China neRussia ngolu hlobo lulandelayo:
Ezinye izizwe ziyaqhubeka nokutyala imali kumazwe ase-Afrika ukuze zifezekise iinjongo zazo, i-China igxile ekufumaneni imithombo yobutyebi bendalo kunye neziseko ezingundoqo eziyimfuneko ukuxhasa ukwenziwa kwemveliso ngelixa zombini i-China ne-Russia zithengisa iinkqubo zezixhobo kwaye zifuna ukuseka izivumelwano zorhwebo nezokhuselo e-Afrika. Njengoko iChina neRussia zisanda impembelelo yazo eAfrika, omabini la mazwe azabalazela ukufumana 'amandla athambileyo' eAfrika ukomeleza amandla awo kwimibutho yamazwe ngamazwe. (iphe. 12)
Ukhuphiswano lwaseMelika ngemithombo ye-Afrika lwagxininiswa xa ulawulo lukaMongameli uClinton lwaluseka uMthetho woHlumo namaThuba e-Afrika (i-AGOA), ekhuthazwa ukuba inike i-Afrika ithuba lokufikelela kwimarike yaseMelika. Ngokwenyani, iAfrika ithumela ngaphandle i-oyile, izimbiwa kunye nezinye izixhobo e-US kwaye isebenza njengentengiso yeemveliso zase-US. Kwi-2014, umbutho wabasebenzi wase-US wabika ukuba "ioli kunye negesi zenza phakathi kwe-80% kunye ne-90% yazo zonke izinto ezithunyelwa ngaphandle kwe-AGOA" (i-AFL-CIO Solidarity Centre, i-2014, iphe. 2).
Ukombiwa kobutyebi baseAfrika kuza ngexabiso eliphezulu. Izivumelwano zamazwe ngamazwe ezilawula ukuhlola izimbiwa neoli azize zisetyenziswe kumazwe asakhasayo. Imfazwe, ukufuduswa, ukutshabalaliswa kwendalo, kunye nokusetyenziswa kakubi kwamalungelo abantu kunye nesidima somntu yimodus operandi. Amazwe atyebileyo ngobutyebi bendalo anjengeAngola, iDemocratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Mali, namanye amazwe akwiNtshona yeSahara abandakanyeke kwiimfazwe ezidla ngokubizwa ngokuba ‘zezobuhlanga’ ngabaphangi. Isithandi sobulumko saseSlovenia nesazi ngentlalontle, uSlavoj Žižek (2010) uthe:
Ngaphantsi komlo wemfazwe yobuhlanga, … siqonda ukusebenza kongxowankulu behlabathi… Inkosi nganye yemfazwe inamakhonkco oshishino nenkampani yangaphandle okanye iqumrhu elixhaphaza ubukhulu becala ubutyebi bemigodi kummandla. Eli lungiselelo liwafanela omabini amaqela: amaqumrhu afumana amalungelo okusebenza kwemigodi ngaphandle kwerhafu kunye nezinye iingxaki, ngelixa iinkosi zemfazwe ziba zizityebi. … libala malunga nokuziphatha okukhohlakeleyo kwabemi basekhaya, susa nje iinkampani zangaphandle zobuchwepheshe obuphezulu kwi-equation kwaye yonke imfazwe yobuhlanga ephenjelelwa ziinkanuko zakudala iyawohloka…Kukho ubumnyama obuninzi kwihlathi elishinyeneyo laseCongo kodwa oonobangela balele kwenye indawo, kwiiofisi eziqaqambileyo zeebhanki zethu kunye neenkampani zobugcisa obuphezulu. (iphepha 163-164)
Ukusetyenziswa kwemfazwe kunye nemithombo yobutyebi kuyenza ibe mandundu ngakumbi utshintsho lwemozulu. Ukukhutshwa kweeminerali kunye ne-oyile, uqeqesho lomkhosi, kunye nezingcolisi zezixhobo zitshabalalisa izinto eziphilayo, zingcolise amanzi, umhlaba kunye nomoya (Dudka & Adriano, 1997; Lawrence et al., 2015; Le Billon, 2001). Ukutshatyalaliswa kwendalo kwandisa iimfazwe zezixhobo kunye nokufuduka kwabantu abaninzi njengoko izixhobo zokuphila zinqongophala. Uqikelelo lwamva nje loMbutho weZizwe eziManyeneyo woKutya kunye nezoLimo lubonisa ukuba abantu abazizigidi ezingama-795 balambile ngenxa yeemfazwe zehlabathi kunye nokutshintsha kwemozulu (iNkqubo yoKutya yeHlabathi, ka-2019). Abenzi bomgaqo-nkqubo behlabathi abazange babize iinkampani zemigodi kunye namashishini emfazwe ukuba aphendule. Abakuthathi ukuxhaphazwa kwezibonelelo njengobundlobongela. Impembelelo yeemfazwe kunye nokutsalwa kwezibonelelo azikhankanywanga nakwiSivumelwano saseParis kunye neProtocol yaseKyoto.
I-Afrika ikwayindawo yokulahla inkunkuma kunye nomthengi wokugatywa kwentshona. Ngo-2018, xa iRwanda yala ukungenisa iimpahla zesibini zase-US kwabakho ingxabano (uJohn, 2018). I-US ibango lokuba i-AGOA inceda i-Afrika, ukanti ubudlelwane borhwebo bunceda i-US kwaye bunciphisa amandla e-Afrika enkqubela-phambili (Melber, 2009). Phantsi kwe-AGOA, amazwe ase-Afrika anyanzelekile ukuba angazibandakanyi kwizinto ezijongela phantsi imidla yase-US. Iintsilelo zorhwebo kunye nokuphuma kwemali kukhokelela ekungalinganini kwezoqoqosho kwaye kucinezele umgangatho wokuphila kwabahluphekayo (Carmody, 2016; Mac Ginty & Williams, 2009). Oozwilakhe bobudlelwane borhwebo kwiGlobal North benza konke oko bekwenza ukuthanda kwabo kwaye bathomalalise izazela zabo ngoncedo oluvela kumazwe angaphandle, olubizwa ngokuba nguEasterly (2006) njengomthwalo wabamhlophe.
Njengakwixesha lobukoloniyali, ubungxowankulu kunye noxhatshazo lwezoqoqosho lwaseAfrika lusaqhubeka nokutshabalalisa iinkcubeko nezithethe zemveli. Umzekelo, Ubuntu baseAfrika (ubuntu) kunye nokukhathalela okulungileyo okuqhelekileyo kubandakanywa nokusingqongileyo kuye kwathatyathelwa indawo kukunyoluka kongxowankulu. Iinkokeli zezopolitiko zilandela ukuziphakamisa hayi inkonzo eluntwini (Utas, 2012; Van Wyk, 2007). U-Ali Mazrui (2007) uphawula ukuba nembewu yeemfazwe ezixhaphakileyo “zilele kubugxwayiba bezentlalo olwenziwa yikoloniyalizim eAfrika ngokutshabalalisa” iinqobo zenkcubeko kuquka “iindlela zakudala zokusombulula impixano ngaphandle kokudala [ababambeleyo] abasebenzayo endaweni yabo” (iphe. 480). Ngokukwanjalo, iindlela zesithethe zokukhusela imo engqongileyo zazigqalwa njengezidalwa eziphilayo nezinobutyholi, yaye zatshatyalaliswa egameni lokunqula uThixo omnye. Xa amaziko enkcubeko nemilinganiselo yawo ewohloka, kunye nokuhlwempuzeka, ungquzulwano alunakuphepheka.
Kumanqanaba kazwelonke, ubundlobongela obukwisakhiwo e-Afrika bufakwe kwinto uLaurie Nathan (2000) awayibiza ngokuba "Abamahashe abane be-Apocalypse" (iphe. 189) - ulawulo lobuzwilakhe, ukukhutshelwa ngaphandle kwabantu ekulawuleni amazwe abo, ukuhlwempuzeka kwezentlalo zoqoqosho kunye nokungalingani okuqiniswa urhwaphilizo nokucalulana, kunye namazwe angasebenziyo anamaziko ahluphekayo angaphumeleliyo ukubethelela umthetho. Ukusilela kobunkokeli kubekek' ityala ekuqiniseni 'Abakhweli bamahashe abane'. Kuninzi lwamazwe ase-Afrika, iofisi yoluntu yindlela yokuziphakamisa. Ingxowa yesizwe, izibonelelo kunye noncedo oluvela kumazwe angaphandle lunceda kuphela abo baphezulu kwezopolitiko.
Uluhlu lwentswelo-bulungisa ebalulekileyo kumanqanaba kazwelonke nawezizwe ngezizwe ayinakunqandwa. Ukwandisa ukungalingani kwezentlalo nezopolitiko kunye nezoqoqosho ngokuqinisekileyo kuya kwandisa iingxabano kunye nomonakalo wendalo. Akukho mntu ufuna ukuba phantsi, kwaye abanelungelo abanamdla wokwabelana ngenqanaba eliphezulu lolawulo loluntu ukuze kuphuculwe okulungileyo. Abo bahlelelekileyo bafuna ukufumana amandla angakumbi kunye nokubuyisela umva ubudlelwane. Bunokuguqulwa njani ubundlobongela obukwisakhiwo ukuze kudaleke uxolo lwesizwe nolwehlabathi?
INguqu yoLwakhiwo
Iindlela eziqhelekileyo zokulawula ungquzulwano, ukwakhiwa koxolo, kunye nokuthomalalisa okusingqongileyo kumanqanaba amancinane kunye namancinci oluntu ayasilela ngenxa yokuba azijongani neendlela zobundlobongela. Ukuthunyelwa, izigqibo zeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo, izixhobo zezizwe ngezizwe, izivumelwano zoxolo ezityobelelweyo, kunye nemigaqo-siseko yesizwe yenziwa kungekho nguqulelo yokwenene. Ulwakhiwo alutshintshi. Ukuguqulwa koLwakhiwo (ST) “izisa kungqwalasela kwindlela esihamba ngayo – ukwakhiwa kobudlelwane obuphilileyo noluntu, ekuhlaleni nakwihlabathi jikelele. Le njongo ifuna utshintsho lokwenyani kwiindlela zethu zangoku zobudlelwane” (Lederach, 2003, p. 5). Utshintsho lubona kwaye luphendule "ukunciphisa kunye nokuhamba kweengxabano zentlalo njengamathuba okunika ubomi okudala iinkqubo eziguqukayo ezakhayo ezinciphisa ubundlobongela, ukwandisa ubulungisa ekusebenzisaneni ngokuthe ngqo kunye nezakhiwo zentlalo, kunye nokuphendula kwiingxaki zobomi bokwenene kubudlelwane babantu" ( Lederach, 2003, p.14).
UDugan (1996) ucebisa imodeli yeparadigm ebekwe kwindlwane yotshintsho lwesakhiwo ngokujongana nemiba, ubudlelwane, iinkqubo, kunye nenkqubo engaphantsi. U-Körppen no-Ropers (2011) bacebisa "indlela yenkqubo yonke" kunye "nobunzima bokucinga njenge-meta-framework" (iphe. 15) ukutshintsha izakhiwo kunye neenkqubo ezicinezelayo kunye nezingasebenziyo. Uguqulo lwezakhiwo lujolise ekunciphiseni ubundlobongela besakhiwo kunye nokwandisa ubulungisa malunga nemiba, ubudlelwane, iinkqubo kunye neenkqubo ezisezantsi ezivelisa intlupheko, ukungalingani kunye nokubandezeleka. Ikwaxhobisa abantu ukuba baqonde amandla abo.
KwiAfrika, ndicebisa imfundo njengondoqo wotshintsho lwezakhiwo (ST). Ukufundisa abantu abanezakhono zokuhlalutya kunye nolwazi lwamalungelo abo kunye nesidima kuya kubenza bakwazi ukuphuhlisa ingqiqo ebalulekileyo kunye nokuqonda iimeko zokungabikho kobulungisa. Abantu abacinezelekileyo bayazikhulula ngesazela sokukhangela inkululeko kunye nokuziqinisekisa (Freire, 1998). Inguqu yesakhiwo asiyondlela yobuchule kodwa yinguqu yeparadigm “ukukhangela kwaye ubone … ngaphaya kweengxaki ezikhoyo ukuya kwindlela enzulu yobudlelwane, …iipateni ezisisiseko kunye nomxholo…, kunye nesakhelo sengqiqo (Lederach, 2003, pp. 8-9). Umzekelo, ama-Afrika kufuneka anikwe isazela malunga neepateni zengcinezelo kunye nobudlelwane obuxhomekeke phakathi kweGlobal North kunye neGlobal South, ukuxhatshazwa kweniyo-koloniyalizim, ubuhlanga, ukuxhatshazwa okuqhubekayo kunye nokujongelwa phantsi okubangabandakanyi ekwenziweni komgaqo-nkqubo wehlabathi. Ukuba ama-Afrika kulo lonke ilizwekazi ayabuqonda ubungozi bokuxhatshazwa kweenkampani kunye nokuphathwa kwemfazwe ngamagunya aseNtshona, kwaye enze uqhanqalazo olubanzi kwilizwekazi lonke, ezo mpatho gadalala ziya kuyeka.
Kubalulekile ukuba abantu abasezantsi bawazi amalungelo kunye noxanduva lwabo njengamalungu oluntu lwehlabathi. Ulwazi lwezixhobo zamazwe ngamazwe kunye nelizwekazi kunye namaziko afana neZizwe eziManyeneyo, iManyano ye-Afrika, i-charter ye-UN, iSibhengezo seHlabathi samaLungelo oLuntu (UDHR) kunye ne-African charter yamalungelo oluntu kufuneka ibe nolwazi oluqhelekileyo oluvumela abantu ukuba bafune izicelo zabo ezilinganayo. . Ngokunjalo, imfundo kubunkokeli kunye nokukhathalela izinto ezilungileyo kufuneka ibe sisinyanzelo. Ubunkokeli obulambathayo buyimbonakaliso yendlela uluntu lwaseAfrika oluyiyo. Ubuntu (ubuntu) kunye nokukhathalelwa kokulungileyo kuye kwathatyathelw’ indawo kukunyoluka kongxowankulu, ubuntu bomntu ngamnye kunye nokusilela ngokupheleleyo ekuxabiseni nasekubhiyozeleni ubuAfrika kunye nolwakhiwo lwenkcubeko yendawo eyenze ukuba uluntu lwaseAfrika luphile ngolonwabo kangangamawaka eminyaka.
Kwakhona kubalulekile ukufundisa intliziyo, "iziko leemvakalelo, intuition, kunye nobomi bomoya ... indawo esiphuma kuyo kwaye sibuyela kuyo ukuze sifumane isikhokelo, isondlo kunye nolwalathiso" (Lederach, 2003, p. 17). Intliziyo ibalulekile ekuguquleni ubudlelwane, utshintsho lwemozulu kunye nesibetho semfazwe. Abantu bazama ukutshintsha uluntu ngeemvukelo ezinogonyamelo kunye neemfazwe njengoko kuboniswa kwiziganeko zehlabathi kunye neemfazwe zamakhaya, kunye novukelo olufana neSudan naseAlgeria. Ukudityaniswa kwentloko nentliziyo kuya kubonisa ukungabi namsebenzi kobundlobongela kungekuphela nje ngenxa yokuziphatha okubi, kodwa ugonyamelo luzala ugonyamelo olungakumbi. Ukungabi nabundlobongela kuphuma entliziyweni eqhutywa luvelwano novelwano. Iinkokeli ezinkulu ezifana noNelson Mandela zadibanisa intloko nentliziyo ukuze zenze utshintsho. Nangona kunjalo, kwihlabathi jikelele sijongene nesithuba sobunkokeli, iinkqubo ezilungileyo zemfundo, kunye nemizekelo. Ngoko ke, imfundo kufuneka incediswe ngokuhlengahlengisa zonke iinkalo zobomi (iinkcubeko, ubudlelwane boluntu, ezopolitiko, ezoqoqosho, indlela esicinga ngayo nesiphila ngayo kwiintsapho nakuluntu).
Iphulo loxolo kufuneka libekwe phambili kuwo onke amanqanaba oluntu. Ukwakhiwa kobudlelwane obuhle boluntu yinto efunekayo ekwakheni uxolo ngokujonga inguqu yamaziko kunye nentlalontle. Ekubeni iingxabano zenzeka kuluntu lwabantu, izakhono zengxoxo, ukukhuthaza ukuqondana kunye nesimo sengqondo sokuphumelela ekulawuleni nasekuxazululeni iingxabano kufuneka zikhuthazwe ukususela ebuntwaneni. Utshintsho lwesakhiwo kumanqanaba amakhulu namancinci oluntu lufuneka ngokungxamisekileyo ukuze kuqwalaselwe ubugwenxa boluntu kumaziko aphambili kunye neenqobo ezisemgangathweni. "Ukudala ihlabathi elingenalo ubundlobongela kuya kuxhomekeka ekupheliseni ukungabi nabulungisa kwezentlalo kunye nezoqoqosho kunye nokusetyenziswa kakubi kwendalo" (Jeong, 2000, p. 370).
Utshintsho lwezakhiwo lulodwa alukhokeli eluxolweni, ukuba alulandelwa okanye lwandulelwa yinguqu yobuqu kunye nokutshintsha kweentliziyo. Kuphela lutshintsho lomntu olunokuthi luzise utshintsho oluyimfuneko kuxolo nokhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nehlabathi oluzinzileyo. Ukutshintsha ukusuka ekubeniwa kongxowankulu, ukhuphiswano, ubuhlanga kunye nobuhlanga kusembindini wemigaqo-nkqubo, iinkqubo kunye neenkqubo eziphantsi ezixhaphaza kwaye zithobe isidima abo bakwimida yelizwe kunye nengaphakathi kuphuma kwiindlela ezizinzileyo nezinelisayo zokuphonononga umntu wangaphakathi kunye nenyani yangaphandle. Ngaphandle koko, amaziko kunye neenkqubo ziya kuqhubeka zithwala kwaye ziqinise ukugula kwethu.
Elokuqukumbela, iphulo loxolo nokhuseleko lwehlabathi liphinda libuyele kukhuphiswano longxowankulu, ingxaki yokusingqongileyo, iimfazwe, ukuphangwa kwezixhobo zemibutho yezizwe ngezizwe, nokwanda kobuzwe. Abo bahlelelekileyo bashiywa bengenandlela yakwenza ngaphandle kokufuduka, ukubandakanyeka kwiimfazwe kunye nobunqolobi. Le meko ifuna imibutho yobulungisa boluntu ukuba ifune ukupheliswa kolu loyiko. Ikwafuna amanyathelo aya kuqinisekisa ukuba iimfuno ezisisiseko zomntu ngamnye ziyahlangatyezwa, kuquka ukulingana nokuxhobisa bonke abantu ukuba bafezekise isakhono sabo. Ukungabikho kobunkokheli behlabathi kunye nobuzwe, abantu abasuka ngaphantsi abachatshazelwa bubundlobongela besakhiwo (SV) kufuneka bafundiswe ukukhokela inkqubo yenguqu. Ukuncothula ukubawa okubangelwa bubungxowankulu kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo yehlabathi ethi ibethelele ukuxhaphaza nokujongelwa phantsi kweAfrika kuya kuqhubela phambili umlo wenkqubo yehlabathi eyenye ekhathalayo ngeemfuno kunye nempilo yabantu bonke kunye nokusingqongileyo.
Ucaphulo
IZiko le-AFL-CIO Solidarity. (2014). Ukwakha isicwangciso-qhinga samalungelo abasebenzi kunye nokubandakanya ukukhula—umbono omtsha wokukhula kweAfrika kunye nomthetho wamathuba (AGOA). Ifunyenwe ku https://aflcio.org/sites/default/files/2017-03/AGOA%2Bno%2Bbug.pdf
Africompublicaffairs. (2016). UGen. Rodriguez Uhambisa ingxelo ye-posture ye-2016. eunited States Umyalelo weAfrika. Ibuyiselwe kwi-https://www.africom.mil/media-room/photo/28038/gen-rodriguez-delivers-2016-posture-statement
Akiwumi, FA, & Butler, DR (2008). Ukuguqulwa kwemigodi kunye nokusingqongileyo eSierra Leone, eNtshona Afrika: Uvavanyo olude kunye ne-hydrogeomorphological study. UkuHlolwa kokuSingqongileyo kunye noVavanyo, 142(1-3), 309-318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9930-9
Ballard, R., Habib, A., Valodia, I., & Zuern, E. (2005). Ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi, ukujongelwa phantsi kunye nemibutho yezentlalo yangoku eMzantsi Afrika. Imicimbi yaseAfrika, 104(417), 615-634. https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adi069
Bassey, N. (2012). Ukupheka ilizwekazi: Ukukhutshwa okutshabalalisayo kunye nengxaki yemozulu eAfrika. Kapa: Pambazuka Press.
Botes, JM (2003). Inguqu yesakhiwo. Kwi-S. Cheldeline, D. Druckman, & L. Fast (Eds.), Ungquzulwano: Ukusuka kuhlalutyo ukuya kungenelelo (iphe. 358-379). ENew York: Iyaqhubeka.
Bretthauer, JM (2018). Ukutshintsha kwemozulu nongquzulwano lwezixhobo: Indima yokunqongophala. ENew York, NY: Routledge.
Burchill, S., Linklater, A., Devetak, R., Donnelly, J., Nardin T., Paterson M., Reus-Smit, C., & True, J. (2013). Iithiyori zobudlelwane bamazwe ngamazwe (u-5 u-Ed.). ENew York: ePalgrave Macmillan.
Burton, JW (1990). Impixano: ithiyori yeemfuno zoluntu. ENew York: I-St. Martin's Press.
Carmody, P. (2016). Ugqatso olutsha lweAfrika. Malden, MA: iPolity Press.
Cook-Huffman, C. (2009). Indima yesazisi kungquzulwano. Kwi-D. Sandole, S. Byrne, I. Sandole Staroste, & J. Senehi (Eds.), Incwadana yokuhlalutya impixano kunye nesisombululo (iphe. 19-31). ENew York: I-Routledge.
Cousens, EM (2001). Intshayelelo. Kwi-EM Cousens, C. Kumar, & K. Wermester (Eds.), Ukwakha uxolo njengezopolitiko: Ukuhlakulela uxolo kwiindawo ezibuthathaka (iphe. 1-20). ELondon: uLynne Rienner.
Curtis, M., & Jones, T. (2017). Iiakhawunti ezinyanisekileyo zowama-2017: Ihlabathi lizuza njani kwiAfrika butyebi. Ifunyenwe kwi-http://curtisresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/honest_accounts_2017_web_final.pdf
Edwards, DP, Sloan, S., Weng, L., Dirks, P., Sayer, J., & Laurance, WF (2014). Imigodi kunye nokusingqongileyo kweAfrika. Iileta zoLondolozo, 7(3). 302-311. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12076
Dudka, S., & Adriano, DC (1997). Iimpembelelo zokusingqongileyo zokwembiwa kwentsimbi ekrwada kunye nokusebenza: Uphononongo. Ijenali yoMgangatho wokuSingqongileyo, i-26(3), 590-602. doi:10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030003x
UDugan, MA (1996). Ithiyori ekhoyo yongquzulwano. Ijenali yobuNkokheli: Abasetyhini kubuNkokheli, 1(1), 9-20.
NgePasika, W. (2006). Umthwalo wabamhlophe: Kutheni imizamo yaseNtshona yokunceda abanye yenze njalo ukugula kakhulu kwaye kuncinci kakhulu. ENew York: IPhengwini.
Fjelde, H., & Uexkull, N. (2012). Izinto ezibangela imozulu: Iziphazamiso zokuna kwemvula, ukuba sesichengeni kunye nongquzulwano phakathi kwe-Afrika ekwi-sub-Sahara. IJografi yezopolitiko, i-31(7), 444-453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2012.08.004
Foucault, M. (1982). Isihloko kunye namandla. Umbuzo obalulekileyo, 8(4), 777-795.
Freire, P. (1998). I-Pedagogy yenkululeko: Ukuziphatha, idemokhrasi, kunye nesibindi soluntu. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Galtung, J. (1969). Ubundlobongela, uxolo, kunye nophando loxolo. Ijenali yoPhando loxolo, 6(3), 167-191 https://doi.org/10.1177/002234336900600301
Green, D. (2008). Ukusuka kwintlupheko ukuya emandleni: Indlela abemi abakhutheleyo kunye namazwe asebenzayo anokutshintsha ngayo Umhlaba. Oxford: Oxfam International.
Gutiérrez, G. (1985). Sisela kweyethu imithombo (u-4 u-Ed.). ENew York: Orbis.
Jeong, HW (2000). Izifundo zoxolo nongquzulwano: Intshayelelo. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Keenan, T. (1987). I. "I-Paradox" yoLwazi kunye namandla: Ukufunda i-Foucault kwi-Bias. Ithiyori yezopolitiko, 15(1), 5-37.
Klein, N. (2007). Imfundiso eyothusayo: Ukunyuka kongxowankulu bentlekele. EToronto: EAlfred A. Knopf eKhanada.
Klein, N. (2014). Oku kutshintsha yonke into: iCapitalism vs. ENew York: USimon noSchuster.
Körppen, D., & Ropers, N. (2011). Intshayelelo: Ukujongana neenguqu ezinzima zongquzulwano. Kwi-D. Körppen, P. Nobert, & HJ Giessmann (Eds.), Ukungahambelani kweenkqubo zoxolo: Ithiyori kunye nokuziqhelanisa nokuguqulwa kongquzulwano olucwangcisiweyo (iphe. 11-23). Opladen: UBarbara Budrich Abapapashi.
Lawrence, MJ, Stemberger, HLJ, Zolderdo, AJ, Struthers, DP, & Cooke, SJ (2015). Imiphumo yemfazwe yanamhlanje kunye nemisebenzi yasemkhosini kwizinto eziphilayo kunye nokusingqongileyo. Uphononongo lokusiNgqongileyo, 23(4), 443-460. https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2015-0039
Le Billon, P. (2001). I-ecology yezopolitiko yemfazwe: Imithombo yendalo kunye neengxabano. IJografi yezopolitiko, i-20(5), 561–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-6298(01)00015-4
Lederach, JP (2003). Incwadi encinci yenguqu yongquzulwano. Ukwabelana ngesondo, PA: Iincwadi ezilungileyo.
Mac Ginty, R., & Williams, A. (2009). Ungquzulwano nophuhliso. ENew York: iRoutledge.
UMaslow, AH (1943). Impixano, udano, kunye nethiyori yesoyikiso. Ijenali yokungaqhelekanga kunye nePsychology yeNtlalo, i-38(1), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054634
Mazrui, AA (2007). Ubuzwe, ubuhlanga nogonyamelo. Kwi-WE Abraham, A. Irele, I. Menkiti, & K. Wiredu (Eds.), Iqabane lefilosofi yaseAfrika (iphe. 472-482). UMalden: IBlackwell Publishing Ltd.
UMelber, H. (2009). Ulawulo lwezorhwebo lwehlabathi kunye ne-multi-polarity. Kwi-R. Southhall, & H. Melber (Eds.), Umqhankqalazo omtsha weAfrika: Impiriyali, utyalo-mali kunye nophuhliso (iphe. 56-82). Scottsville: UKZN Press.
UNathan, L. (2000). “Abakhweli bamahashe abane beapocalypse”: Oonobangela bobume bentlekele nogonyamelo eAfrika. Uxolo noTshintsho, 25(2), 188-207. https://doi.org/10.1111/0149-0508.00150
Oxfam. (2015). Afrika: Ukunyuka kwabambalwa. Ibuyiselwe ku https://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/africa-rising-for-the-few-556037
URodney, W. (1981). Indlela iYurophu eyaphuhlisa ngayo iAfrika (Rev. Ed.). Washington, DC: Howard University Press.
Southall, R., & Melber, H. (2009). Ugqatso olutsha lweAfrika? Impiriyali, utyalo-mali kunye Phuhliso. Scottsville, eMzantsi Afrika: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
John, T. (2018, Meyi 28). I-US kunye neRwanda ziye zawa njani malunga neengubo ezisetyenzisiweyo. BBC News. Ibuyiselwe kwakhona https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44252655
Trondheim. (2019). Ukwenza izinto ezahlukeneyo zebhayoloji: Ulwazi kunye nolwazi lwe-post-2020 isakhelo sezinto eziphilayo zehlabathi [INgxelo yooSihlalo abaSebenzayo kwiNkomfa yeThoba yeTrondheim]. Ifunyenwe ku-https://trondheimconference.org/conference-reports
Utas, M. (2012). Intshayelelo: Ubukhulu kunye nolawulo lwenethiwekhi kwiingxabano zaseAfrika. Kwi-M. Utas (Ed.), Iingxabano zaseAfrika kunye namandla angekho sikweni: Amadoda amakhulu kunye nothungelwano (iphe. 1-34). ELondon/eNew York: Iincwadi zeZed.
Van Wyk, J.-A. (2007). Iinkokeli zezopolitiko e-Afrika: ooMongameli, abaxhasi okanye abenza inzuzo? UmAfrika Iziko leSisombululo esakhayo seeMbango (ACCORD)'s Uthotho lwamaPhepha ngamaXesha athile, 2(1), 1-38. Ifunyenwe ku-https://www.accord.org.za/publication/political-leaders-africa/.
Inkqubo yoKutya yeHlabathi. (2019). 2019 - Imephu yendlala. Ibuyiselwe ku https://www.wfp.org/publications/2019-hunger-map
Žižek, S. (2010). Ukuphila kumaxesha okugqibela. ENew York: Verso.
