I-Radicalism kunye nobunqolobi kuMbindi Mpuma kunye ne-Afrika engaphantsi kwe-Sahara
Abstract
Ukuqala kwakhona kwe-radicalization phakathi kwenkolo yamaSilamsi kwi-21st I-Century ibonakalise ngokufanelekileyo kuMbindi Mpuma kunye nakwi-Afrika engaphantsi kwe-Sahara, ngakumbi ukuqala ukusuka ekupheleni kwee-2000s. ISomalia, iKenya, iNigeria, kunye neMali, ngokusebenzisa iAl Shabab kunye neBoko Haram, zikhusela izenzo zobunqolobi ezibonisa olu tshintsho. I-Al Qaeda kunye ne-ISIS imele le ntshukumo e-Iraq naseSiriya. AmaSilamsi angama-Radical axhamle kwiindlela zolawulo ezibuthathaka, amaziko karhulumente abuthathaka, intlupheko ebanzi, kunye nezinye iimeko ezilusizi zentlalo ukuze kufuneke ukuba kubunjwe ubuSilamsi kwi-Afrika engezantsi kweSahara nakuMbindi Mpuma. Ukuhla komgangatho wobunkokeli, ulawulo, kunye nemikhosi evuselelayo yokudityaniswa kwehlabathi kuye kwakhuthaza ukubuya kwe-Islamic fundamentalism kule mimandla kunye nefuthe elikhulu kukhuseleko lwesizwe kunye nokwakhiwa kombuso ngakumbi kwiintlanga ezininzi kunye neenkolo zonqulo.
intshayelelo
Ukusuka kwiBoko Haram, iqela lamajoni amaSilamsi asebenza kumntla-mpuma weNigeria, iCameroun, iNiger kunye neChad ukuya kwiAl Shabaab eKenya naseSomalia, iAl Qaeda kunye ne-ISIS e-Iraq naseSyria, kwi-Afrika engezantsi kweSahara kunye nakuMbindi Mpuma baye baphantsi kohlobo olubi kakhulu. I-radicalization yamaSilamsi. Uhlaselo lwabanqolobi kumaziko karhulumente kunye nabemi kunye nemfazwe epheleleyo e-Iraq naseSiriya eyasungulwa yi-Islamic State e-Iraq naseSiriya (ISIS) ibangele ukungazinzi kunye nokungakhuselekanga kule mimandla iminyaka emininzi. Ukususela kwisiqalo esithozamileyo esingacacanga, la maqela omkhosi amiliselwe njengenxalenye ebalulekileyo yokuphazamiseka kulwakhiwo lokhuseleko loMbindi Mpuma kunye ne-Afrika engezantsi kweSahara.
Iingcambu zale ntshukumo zinzulu zizinze kwiinkolelo zonqulo ezigqithisileyo, ezibangelwa ziimeko ezimaxongo zentlalo noqoqosho, amaziko karhulumente abuthathaka nabuthathaka, kunye nolawulo olungasebenziyo. ENigeria, ukungabi nangqiqo kobunkokeli bezopolitiko kwavumela ukuvutshelwa kwehlelo kwiqela elinamandla elinomkhosi kunye nokudibanisa kwangaphandle kunye nokungena kwangaphakathi okunamandla ngokwaneleyo ukucela umngeni kwilizwe laseNigeria ngempumelelo ukususela kwi-2009 (ICG, 2010; Bauchi, 2009). Imiba eyomeleleyo yentlupheko, ukunqongophala kwezoqoqosho, ulutsha olungaphangeliyo kunye nolwabiwo lwezibonelelo zoqoqosho lube yimihlaba echumileyo yokuzala i-radicalism e-Afrika naseMbindi Mpuma (Padon, 2010).
Eli phepha libonisa ukuba amaziko aseburhulumenteni abuthathaka kunye neemeko zoqoqosho ezibuhlungu kule mimandla kunye nokubonakala ngathi akukho kulungelelaniswa kobunkokeli bezopolitiko ukubhukuqa ii-indices zolawulo, kunye nokunyanzeliswa yimikhosi ye-globalization, i-radical Islam ingaba apha ixesha elide. Iziphumo zezokuba ukhuseleko lwelizwe kunye noxolo lwehlabathi kunye nokhuseleko lunokuba lubi ngakumbi, njengoko ingxaki yabafuduki eYurophu iqhubeleka. Iphepha lihlulwe libe ngamacandelo adibeneyo. Ngentshayelelo yokuvula edityaniswe nokuphononongwa kwengqiqo kwi-radicalization yamaSilamsi, icandelo lesithathu nelesine lityhila iintshukumo ezinzulu kwi-Afrika ekwi-sub-Sahara nakuMbindi Mpuma ngokulandelelanayo. Icandelo lesihlanu livavanya iimpembelelo zeentshukumo ezikhawulezayo kukhuseleko lwengingqi kunye nehlabathi jikelele. Iinketho zomgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle kunye nezicwangciso zelizwe ziboshwe kwisigqibo.
Yintoni iRadicalization yamaSilamsi?
Ukutsha kwezentlalo nezopolitiko okwenzeka kuMbindi Mpuma okanye kwihlabathi lamaSilamsi kunye neAfrika sisiqinisekiso esicacileyo sengqikelelo kaHuntington (1968) yokungqubana kwempucuko ngo-21st Inkulungwane. Imizabalazo yembali phakathi kweNtshona neMpuma iqhubekile iqinisekisa ngokucacileyo ukuba omabini la mazwe akanakudibana (Kipling, 1975). Olu khuphiswano lumalunga neenqobo ezisemgangathweni: I-Conservative okanye inkululeko. Iingxoxo zenkcubeko kule ngqiqo ziphatha amaSilamsi njengeqela elilinganayo xa ngokwenene zahluka. Ngokomzekelo, iindidi ezifana neSunni kunye neShia okanye iSalafi kunye neWahabbis zizibonakaliso ezicacileyo zokuhlukana phakathi kwamaqela amaSilamsi.
Kubekho intshukumo yeradical movement, ebisoloko ijikela ekubeni ngomkhosi kule mimandla ukusukela nge19th kwinkulungwane. I-Radicalization ngokwayo yinkqubo ebandakanya umntu okanye iqela eligxininiswe kwiseti yeenkolelo ezixhasa izenzo zobunqolobi ezinokubonakaliswa kwindlela yokuziphatha kunye nesimo sengqondo (Rahimullah, Larmar & Abdalla, 2013, p. 20). IRadicalism nangona kunjalo ayidibani nobunqolobi. Ngokuqhelekileyo, i-radicalism kufuneka yandulela ubunqolobi kodwa, abanqolobi banokude bathintele inkqubo yeradicalization. Ngokutsho kukaRais (2009, iphe. 2), ukungabikho kweendlela zomgaqo-siseko, inkululeko yomntu, ulwabiwo olungalinganiyo lobutyebi, ulwakhiwo lwentlalo olunocalucalulo kunye nomthetho oethe-ethe kunye neemeko zocwangco kunokwenzeka ukuba zivelise ukunyakaza okunamandla kulo naluphi na uluntu oluphuhlisiwe okanye oluphuhlayo. Kodwa iintshukumo ezinkulu zisenokungabi ngamaqela abanqolobi. IRadicalism ke ngoko iyayikhaba ngaw' omane indlela ekhoyo yokuthatha inxaxheba kwezopolitiko kunye nezentlalo, ezoqoqosho, kunye namaziko ezopolitiko njengenganelanga ukusombulula izikhalazo zoluntu. Ke ngoko, i-radicalism ibalelwa okanye iqhutywa sisibheno sotshintsho olusisiseko lweziseko kuzo zonke iinkalo zobomi boluntu. Ezi isenokuba bubudlelwane bezopolitiko nezoqoqosho. Kwezi ndlela, iradicalism yenza iimbono ezintsha ezidumileyo, icela umngeni ukuba semthethweni kunye nokufaneleka kweengcinga neenkolelo ezikhoyo. Ithi ke ithethelele utshintsho olumandla njengendlela eyakhayo nenenkqubela phambili yokulungelelanisa uluntu.
IRadicalism ayisiyonkolo nangayiphi na indlela. Inokwenzeka kuyo nayiphi na ingcamango okanye imeko yelizwe. Abadlali abathile banegalelo ekuveleni kwento efana nobuqhophololo obuphezulu. Kwimeko yokuvinjwa kunye nentswelo egqibeleleyo, umboniso obalaseleyo wobutyebi ekukholelwa ukuba usuka kuxhatshazo, inkcitho kunye nokuphambukiswa kwemithombo yobutyebi boluntu ukwenzela iinjongo zabucala zabo baphezulu unokuphembelela impendulo emandla kwiqela labemi. Ke ngoko, ukuphazamiseka phakathi kwabavinjwayo kumxholo wesakhelo soluntu kunokubangela ngokusisiseko iradicalism. U-Rahman (2009, iphe. 4) ushwankathele izinto eziluncedo kwi-radicalization ngokuthi:
Ukwehliswa kolawulo kunye nokudityaniswa kwehlabathi njl. zizinto ezibangela iradicalization kuluntu. Ezinye izinto ziquka ukunqongophala kobulungisa, isimo sengqondo sempindezelo kuluntu, imigaqo-nkqubo engekho sikweni karhulumente/yelizwe, ukusetyenziswa kwamandla ngokungekho sikweni, nokuziva uvinjwa kunye neempembelelo zako ngokwasengqondweni. Ucalucalulo lodidi eluntwini lukwanegalelo kwinto yokwenziwa kweradicalization.
Ezi zinto ngokudibeneyo zingadala iqela elineembono ezigqithisileyo malunga nezithethe zamaSilamsi kunye nezithethe kunye nezenzo ezinokuthi zifune ukudala utshintsho olusisiseko okanye olukhawulezayo. Olu hlobo lwenkolo ye-radicalism yamaSilamsi luvela ekutolikweni okulinganiselweyo kweQuran liqela okanye umntu ngamnye ukuze kuphunyezwe iinjongo ezinzulu (Pavan & Murshed, 2009). Ingqondo yeeradicals kukudala utshintsho olukhulu eluntwini ngenxa yokunganeliseki kwabo lucwangco olukhoyo. I-radicalization yamaSilamsi ke ngoko yinkqubo yokunciphisa utshintsho olukhawulezileyo kuluntu njengempendulo kumgangatho ophantsi wentlalo-qoqosho kunye nenkcubeko yenginginya yamaSilamsi ngombono wokugcina ukuqina kokuqina kwimilinganiselo, izenzo kunye nezithethe ngokuchasene nesimanje.
I-Islamic radicalization ifumana intetho ecacileyo ekukhuthazeni izenzo ezigqithisileyo zobundlobongela ekwenzeni utshintsho olumandla. Oku kukwahlula okuphawulekayo kwi-Islamic fundamentalist efuna ukubuyela kwizinto ezisisiseko zamaSilamsi ebusweni borhwaphilizo ngaphandle kokusetyenziswa kobundlobongela. Inkqubo yeradicalization iphakamisa inani elikhulu lamaSilamsi, intlupheko, intswela-ngqesho, ukungakwazi ukufunda nokubhala kunye nokujongelwa phantsi.
Imiba yomngcipheko kwi-radicalism phakathi kwamaSilamsi antsonkothile kwaye ayahluka. Enye yezi zinto idibaniswe nobukho bentshukumo yeSalafi/Wahabi. Inguqulo ye-jihadist ye-Salafi movement ichasene nengcinezelo yasentshona kunye nobukho bezempi kwilizwe lamaSilamsi kunye noorhulumente basentshona kwi-Afrika engaphantsi kwe-Sahara. Eli qela lithethelela ukuxhathisa ngezixhobo. Nangona amaLungu ombutho we-Wahabi ezama ukuhluka kwiSalafi, athambekele ekwamkeleni oku kunyanyezelwa kakhulu kwabangakholwayo (Rahimullah, Larmar and Abdalla, 2013; Schwartz, 2007). Umba wesibini yimpembelelo yamanani amaSilamsi aqatha anjengoSyeb Gutb, umphengululi odumileyo waseJiphutha ekukholelwa ukuba unguvulindlela ekubekeni isiseko sobuSilamsi banamhlanje. Iimfundiso zika-Osama bin Laden kunye no-Anwar Al Awlahi zikolu luhlu. Inqaku lesithathu lokuthethelela ubunqolobi lisekelwe kwimvukelo enobundlobongela ngokuchasene noorhulumente abanegunya, abarhwaphilizayo kunye nengcinezelo yamazwe asanda kuzimela kwi-20.th kwinkulungwane kuMbindi Mpuma nakuMntla Afrika (Hassan, 2008). Okunxulumene ngokusondeleyo nempembelelo yamanani amakhulu yinto ebonwa njengegunya lesifundiswa apho amaSilamsi amaninzi anokukhohliswa ukuba ayamkele njengetoliko lokwenyani leQuran (Ralumullah, et al, 2013). Ukudityaniswa kwehlabathi kunye nophuculo lwehlabathi lube nefuthe elikhulu kwi-radicalization yamaSilamsi. Iingcamango zeRadical Islamic ziye zasasazeka ngokukhawuleza kwihlabathi liphela zifikelela kumaSilamsi ngokulula ngetekhnoloji kunye ne-intanethi. Iingqondo ezikhawulezayo ziye zabambelela kule nto ngokukhawuleza kunye nefuthe elikhulu kwi-radicalization (Veldhius kunye noStaun, 2009). Uphuculo lwale mihla lutshintshe amaSilamsi amaninzi ayibonayo njengokunyanzeliswa kwenkcubeko yaseNtshona kunye nemilinganiselo kwilizwe lamaSilamsi (Lewis, 2003; Huntington, 1996; Roy, 2014).
Ingxoxo yenkcubeko njengesiseko se-radicalism ibonisa inkcubeko njenge-static kunye nenkolo njenge-monolithic (uMurshed noPavan & 20009). U-Huntington (2006) uvakalisa ukungqubana kwempucuko kukhuphiswano oluphezulu - olungaphantsi phakathi kweNtshona kunye ne-Islam. Ngaloo ndlela, i-radicalization yamaSilamsi ifuna ukucela umngeni ukungaphantsi kwamandla abo ngokuphakamisa inkcubeko yabo ebonwayo ephezulu elawulwa yinkcubeko yaseNtshona ebonakaliswa njengephezulu. U-Lewis (2003) uphawula ukuba amaSilamsi ayalucekisa ulawulo lwawo lwenkcubeko ngembali nanjengenkcubeko egqwesileyo kwaye yiyo loo nto intiyo yaseNtshona kunye nokuzimisela ukusebenzisa ubundlobongela ukwazisa utshintsho olukhulu. I-Islam njengenkolo inobuso obuninzi kwimbali kwaye ibonakaliswe kumaxesha anamhlanje kubuninzi bezazisi kwinqanaba lamaSilamsi kunye nokuqokelela kwabo. Ke, ubuni bamaSilamsi abukho kwaye inkcubeko iyaguquguquka, itshintsha kunye neemeko eziphathekayo njengoko ziguquka. Ukusebenzisa inkcubeko kunye nenkolo njengemiba yomngcipheko kwi-radicalization kufuneka kucatshangelwe ukuba ibe yinto efanelekileyo.
Amaqela eRadicalized aqesha amalungu okanye i-mujahedeen evela kwimithombo eyahlukeneyo kunye nemvelaphi. Iqela elikhulu lee-radical elements lifunwa phakathi kolutsha. Olu didi lobudala luzaliswe yinkolelo kunye nenkolelo ye-utopian yokutshintsha ihlabathi. Le potency isetyenziswe ngamaqela amakhulu ekufuneni amalungu amatsha. Becatshukiswa ziintetho zepropagandist kwimosque yasekhaya okanye ezikolweni, ividiyo okanye iiteyiphu ezimanyelwayo okanye i-intanethi nasekhaya, abanye abantu abancinci abaqhele umngeni kubazali babo, ootitshala kunye noluntu babambe ixesha lokuba baguquke.
Uninzi lwama-jihadists ngabantu benkolo belizwe abanyanzelwa ukuba baphume kumazwe abo ngeenkqubo zokhuseleko eziqatha. Kumazwe angaphandle, bachonga uthungelwano lobuSilamsi obuqinileyo kunye nemisebenzi yabo kwaye emva koko bazibandakanye nolawulo lwamaSilamsi kumazwe abo asekhaya.
Emva kohlaselo lwe-11 kaSeptemba e-United States, abantu abaninzi be-radicals bacatshukiswa yimvakalelo yokungabikho kokusesikweni, uloyiko kunye nomsindo ngokuchasene ne-US kunye nomoya wemfazwe echasene neSilamsi eyadalwa nguBin Laden, uluntu lwaseDiaspora lwaba ngumthombo omkhulu wokufumana abasebenzi. njengeeradicals ezikhule ekhaya. AmaSilamsi aseYurophu naseCanada aye aqeshwa ukuba ajoyine iintshukumo ezinkulu zokutshutshisa ijihad yehlabathi. I-Diaspora Muslim ivakalelwa kukuba ihlazekile ngenxa yokungabikho kunye nocalucalulo eYurophu (Lewis, 2003; Murshed and Pavan, 2009).
Unxibelelwano lobuhlobo kunye nokuzalana lusetyenziswe njengemithombo yokwenene yokufumana abasebenzi. Ezi zisetyenziswe "njengeendlela zokuzisa iingcamango ezinzulu, ukugcina ukuzibophezela ngokusebenzisa i-comradeship kwi-jihadism, okanye ukubonelela abafowunelwa abathembekileyo ngeenjongo zokusebenza" (Gendron, 2006, p. 12).
Ukuguqulelwa kwiSilamsi kukwangumthombo omkhulu wokugaya njengamajoni ahamba ngeenyawo kwi-Al Qaeda kunye nolunye uthungelwano lwe-splinter. Ukuqhelana neYurophu kwenza abaguquli bathembisayo radicals ngokuzinikela kunye nokuzinikela kwikhosi. Abasetyhini baye baba ngumthombo wokwenene wokufuna ukuhlaselwa ngokuzibulala. Ukusuka eChechnya ukuya eNigeria nasePalestine, abafazi baye baqeshwa ngempumelelo kwaye bathunyelwa ekuhlaseleni ngokuzibulala.
Ukuvela kwamaqela aneembono ezikhawulezayo kunye nezoyikekayo kwi-Afrika ekwi-sub-Saharan nakuMbindi Mpuma ngokuchasene nezi meko ziqhelekileyo zifuna uqwalaselo oluthe kratya lwamava athile abonisa ubungangamsha kunye nemvelaphi eyahlukileyo yeqela ngalinye. Oku kuyimfuneko ukuseka indlela i-Islamic radicalization isebenza ngayo kwezi mozulu kunye nefuthe elinokubakho kuzinzo kunye nokhuseleko lwehlabathi.
Iintshukumo zeRadical kwi-Afrika ekwi-Sub-Sahara
Ngowe-1979, amaSilamsi eShia abhukuqa iShah yaseIran. Le revolution yase-Iranian yaba sisiqalo se-radicalism yangoku yamaSilamsi (Rubin, 1998). AmaSilamsi adityaniswa kuphuhliso lwethuba lokubuyiselwa kombuso wamaSilamsi osulungekileyo kunye noorhulumente abarhwaphilizayo abangama-Arabhu abajonge inkxaso yaseNtshona. Uguquko lwaba nefuthe elikhulu kwingqondo yamaSilamsi kunye nokuqonda ukuba ungubani (Gendron, 2006). Ngokusondeleyo emva kwenguquko yamaShia yaba luhlaselo lomkhosi weSoviet e-Afghanistan ngo-1979. Amawaka aliqela amaMuslim afudukela e-Afghanistan ukuya kugxotha abavukeli bamakomanisi. I-Afghanistan yaba lithuba elibukhali lokuqeqeshwa kweejihadists. Abafuna i-jihadists bafumana uqeqesho kunye nezakhono kwindawo ekhuselekileyo kwimizabalazo yabo yasekhaya. Kwakuse-Afghanistan apho i-jihadism yehlabathi yakhawulwa kwaye yakhuliswa ngokulahla i-Osama bin Laden's Salafi - intshukumo yeWahabist.
I-Afghanistan yayilibala elikhulu apho iimbono zamaSilamsi eziqatha zathi zahluma ngezakhono zomkhosi ezifunyenweyo; amanye amabala afana neAlgeria, Egypt, Kashmir kunye neChechnya nawo avela. ISomalia neMali nazo ziye zangenelela kolu ngquzulwano kwaye ziye zaba ziindawo ezikhuselekileyo zoqeqesho lwezinto eziqatha. I-Al Qaeda yakhokelela ekuhlaselweni kwe-United States ngoSeptemba 11, 2001 yayikukuzalwa kweJihad yehlabathi kunye nempendulo yase-US ngokungenelela e-Iraq nase-Afghanistan yayingumhlaba oqinisekileyo we-Ummah yehlabathi jikelele ukujongana notshaba lwabo olufanayo. Amaqela asekuhlaleni azibandakanya nomzabalazo kwezi kunye neethiyetha ezininzi zasekhaya ukuzama ukoyisa utshaba oluvela eNtshona kunye nokuxhasa oorhulumente bama-Arabhu. Basebenzisana namanye amaqela angaphandle koMbindi Mpuma ukuzama ukuseka ubuSilamsi obusulungekileyo kwiindawo ezikumazantsi eSahara eAfrika. Ngokuwohloka kweSomalia ebutsheni beminyaka yoo-1990, umhlaba ochumileyo wawuvulekele ukuvutshelwa kobuSilamsi obugqithileyo kuphondo lweAfrika.
I-Radical Islam eSomalia, eKenya naseNigeria
ISomalia, ekwiNxibe ye-Afrika (HOA) imida yaseKenya eMpuma Afrika. I-HOA yindawo yeqhinga, i-artery enkulu kunye nomzila wezothutho zaselwandle zehlabathi jikelele (Ali, 2008, p.1). IKenya, elona qoqosho likhulu eMpuma Afrika ikwanobuchule njengombindi woqoqosho lwengingqi. Lo mmandla ulikhaya leenkcubeko ezahlukeneyo, izizwe kunye neenkolo ezenza uluntu oluguqukayo eAfrika. I-HOA yayiyindlela enqamlezileyo yokunxibelelana phakathi kwama-Asiya, ama-Arabhu kunye ne-Afrika ngorhwebo. Ngenxa yempembelelo entsonkothileyo yenkcubeko nonqulo lwalo mmandla, uzaliswe ziingxabano, iingxabano ngemimandla neemfazwe zamakhaya. ISomalia njengelizwe ngokomzekelo ayilwazi uxolo ukusukela oko kwasweleka uSiad Barrre. Ilizwe liye lachithwa ngokwamaqela kunye nomzabalazo wangaphakathi oxhobileyo wamabango emimandla. Ukuwa kwegunya eliphakathi akukafunyanwa kwakhona ngokusebenzayo ukususela ekuqaleni koo-1990.
Ukuxhaphaka kwesiphithiphithi kunye nokungazinzi kunikeze umhlaba ochumileyo we-radicalization yamaSilamsi. Esi sigaba sisekelwe kwimbali yobukoloniyali enobundlobongela kunye nexesha leMfazwe yoMthandazo, nto leyo ebonisa ubundlobongela bale mihla kulo mmandla. U-Ali (2008) uthe into ebonakala ngathi yinkcubeko emiliselwe yobundlobongela kulo mmandla yimveliso yezinto eziguquguqukayo kwezopolitiko zommandla ngakumbi kukhuphiswano lwamandla ezopolitiko. I-radicalization yamaSilamsi ke ngoko ibonwa njengengcambu ekhawulezayo kumandla kwaye imiliselwe ngothungelwano olusekiweyo lwamaqela amakhulu.
Inkqubo yeradicalization kuphondo lweAfrika iqhutywa lulawulo olulambathayo. Abantu ngabanye kunye namaqela aqhutywe ekuphelelweni lithemba ajika ukuba amkele i-purist version ye-Islam ngokuvukela urhulumente ophazamisa abemi kunye nazo zonke iintlobo zokungabikho kokusesikweni, inkohlakalo kunye nokuphulwa kwamalungelo oluntu (Ali, 2008). Abantu ngabanye badityaniswa ngeendlela ezimbini ezinkulu. Okokuqala, ulutsha lufundiswa ukutolikwa okucacileyo kweQuran ngootitshala abangqongqo bamaWahabi abaqeqeshwe kuMbindi Mpuma. Ngaloo ndlela aba bakwishumi elivisayo bendele kule ngcamango yogonyamelo. Okwesibini, ukuxhasa imeko apho abantu bajongana nengcinezelo, bonzakele kwaye bachithwa ngabaphathi bemfazwe, i-Al Qaeda yangoku ephefumlelwe yi-jihadist eqeqeshwe kuMbindi Mpuma yabuyela eSomalia. Inene, ukusuka e-Ethiopia, eKenya, eDjibouti naseSudan, ulawulo olulambathayo ngolawulo lwedemokhrasi yohanahaniso luye lwatyhalela abemi babhekisa kwabo bagabadelayo bashumayela ubuSilamsi obumsulwa ukuba bazise utshintsho olumandla kunye namalungelo kunye nokuseka ubulungisa.
I-Al-Shabaab, ethetha 'uLutsha' yadalwa ngezi nkqubo zintlu-mbini. Ngokuzisa amanyathelo oluntu afana nokususwa kwezithintelo zendlela, ukubonelela ngokhuseleko nokohlwaya abo babexhaphaza uluntu lwasekuhlaleni, eli qela labonwa njengelihlangabezana neemfuno zabantu baseSomalia abaqhelekileyo, inyathelo elaneleyo lokuzuza inkxaso yabo. Iqela liqikelelwa ngaphezulu kwe-1,000 yamalungu axhobileyo kunye nephuli yogcino yolutsha olungaphezulu kwama-3000 kunye nabaxhasi (Ali, 2008). Ngokukhula okukhawulezileyo kwamaSilamsi kuluntu oluhlwempuzekileyo njengeSomalia, iimeko ezimanyumnyezi zentlalo noqoqosho ziye zathanda ukukhawulezisa ukwenziwa koluntu lwaseSomalia. Xa ulawulo olululo lubonakala lungenalo ithuba lokuphembelela i-HoA, i-Islamic radicalization imiselwe ukuba imiliselwe ngokuqinileyo kwaye inyuke kwaye inokuhlala injalo kangangexesha elizayo. Inkqubo yeradicalization inikwe amandla yijihad yehlabathi. Umabonwakude wesathelayithi ube lithuba lempembelelo kubashishina bengingqi ngemifanekiso yemfazwe yase-Iraq naseSyria. I-intanethi ngoku ingumthombo omkhulu we-radicalization ngokudala kunye nokugcinwa kweziza ngamaqela agxininisekileyo. Iimali ezithunyelwa nge-elektroniki zikhuthaze ukukhula kweradicalization, ngelixa umdla wamazwe angaphandle kwi-HoA uye wagcina umfanekiso wokuxhomekeka kunye nengcinezelo emelwe bubuKristu. Le mifanekiso ivelele kwiphondo laseAfrika ngakumbi e-Ogaden, e-Oromia naseZanzibar.
E-Kenya imikhosi ye-radicalization ngumxube onzima wezakhiwo kunye neziko, izikhalazo, umgaqo-nkqubo wangaphandle kunye nomkhosi, kunye ne-jihad yehlabathi (Patterson, 2015). Ezi mpembelelo azinakwenza ingqiqo kwingxelo yeradicalization ngaphandle kokubhekisa kwimbono eyiyo yembali kubudlelwane bentlalo kunye nenkcubeko yaseKenya kunye nokusondela kwayo ngokwejografi eSomalia.
Abemi baseKenya abangamaSilamsi bamalunga ne-4.3 yezigidi. Oku malunga neepesenti ze-10 zabemi baseKenya be-38.6 yezigidi ngokwe-census ye-2009 (ICG, 2012). Uninzi lwamaSilamsi aseKenya ahlala kwimimandla eselunxwemeni yonxweme kunye namaphondo aseMpuma kunye naseNairobi ngakumbi kwindawo yase-Eastleigh. AmaSilamsi aseKenya ngumxube omkhulu wesiSwahili okanye amaSomalia, ama-Arabhu nama-Asiya. I-radicalization yale mihla yamaSilamsi eKenya ithatha inkuthazo eqinileyo ukusuka ekunyukeni okumangalisayo kwe-Al-Shabaab ukuya kwindawo ebalaseleyo kuMazantsi eSomalia ngo-2009. Ukususela ngoko iye yaphakamisa inkxalabo malunga nentsingiselo kunye nesantya se-radicalization eKenya kwaye okona kubaluleke kakhulu, njengesoyikiso kukhuseleko kunye nozinzo lwelizwe. HoA. EKenya, kuye kwavela iqela leSalafi Jihadi elinoqilima kakhulu nelisebenzayo elisebenza ngokusondeleyo neAl-Shabaab. Iziko loLutsha lwamaSilamsi elizinze eKenya (MYC) yinxalenye eyoyikekayo yolu thungelwano. Eli qela lamajoni elikhulele ekhaya lihlasela ukhuseleko lwangaphakathi lwaseKenya ngenkxaso esebenzayo evela kwi-Al-Shabaab.
I-Al-Shabaab yaqala njengeqela lamajoni kwiManyano yeenkundla zamaSilamsi kwaye yavuka yacela umngeni ngobundlobongela ekuthathweni kwe-Ethiopia eMazantsi eSomalia ukusuka ngo-2006 ukuya ku-2009 (ICG, 2012). Ukulandela ukurhoxiswa kwemikhosi yase-Ethiopia ngo-2009, iqela lakhawuleza lazalisa isithuba kwaye lahlala uninzi lwamazantsi kunye nombindi weSomalia. Lithe lazinza eSomalia, eli qela lasabela kutshintsho lwezopolitiko zengingqi kwaye lathumela iradicalism yalo eKenya eyavuthuza yavuleka ngo-2011 emva kokungenelela komkhosi wokhuselo waseKenya eSomalia.
I-radicalization yangoku eKenya isekelwe kwiingcamango zembali eziye zaphosa isenzeko ngendlela eyingozi yangoku ukusuka kwiminyaka yoo-1990 ukuya kowama-2000. AmaSilamsi aseKenya afumana izikhalazo ezininzi ezizezembali. Ngokomzekelo, ulawulo lwamathanga lwaseBritani lwaluwajongela phantsi amaSilamsi yaye aluzange luwaphathe njengesiSwahili okanye abantu abangengobemi bomthonyama. Lo mgaqo-nkqubo wabashiya kwimida yezoqoqosho, ezopolitiko kunye noluntu lwaseKenya. Emva kwenkululeko kaDaniel Arab Moi wakhokela urhulumente esebenzisa iKenyan African National Union (KANU), njengelizwe eliqela elinye lagcina ukujongelwa phantsi kwezopolitiko kwamaMuslim ngexesha lolawulo lobukoloniyali. Ke, ngenxa yokunqongophala kokumelwa kwezopolitiko, ukunqongophala kwezoqoqosho, ezemfundo kunye namanye amathuba abangelwa lucalucalulo olucwangcisiweyo, kunye nokucinezelwa kwelizwe ngendlela yokuxhatshazwa kwamalungelo oluntu kunye nomthetho ochasene nobunqolobi kunye namaqhinga, amanye amaSilamsi aphembelela impendulo enobundlobongela ngokuchasene neKenya. urhulumente kunye noluntu. Unxweme kunye namaphondo akumntla-mpuma kunye nommandla wase-Eastleigh kwindawo yaseNairobi enelona nani liphezulu labantu abangaphangeliyo, uninzi lwabo lungamaSulumane. AmaSilamsi akwiNqila yaseLamu nakwimimandla eselunxwemeni aziva engakhathali yaye ekruqukile yinkqubo ewafunxayo yaye akulungele ukwamkela iimbono ezibaxiweyo.
I-Kenya, njengamanye amazwe kwi-HoA, ibonakaliswe yinkqubo yolawulo ebuthathaka. Amaziko karhulumente abalulekileyo abuthathaka njengenkqubo yobulungisa kulwaphulo-mthetho. Ukungohlwaywa kuyinto eqhelekileyo. Ukhuseleko kwimida lubuthathaka kwaye unikezelo lweenkonzo zoluntu nalo lukumgangatho ophantsi kakhulu. Urhwaphilizo olugqugqisayo luwacinezele amaziko karhulumente angakwaziyo ukunikezela ngeenkonzo zoluntu kubandakanywa ukhuseleko emideni kunye nezinye izinto eziluncedo kubemi. Eyona nto ibetha kakhulu icandelo labemi bamaSilamsi kuluntu lwaseKenya (Patterson, 2015). Isebenzisa inkqubo yentlalo ebuthathaka, inkqubo yemfundo yamaSilamsi aseMadrassas ifundisa abakwishumi elivisayo ukuba babe neembono ezibaxiweyo baze babe neembono ezibaxiweyo kakhulu. Ulutsha olugqibeleleyo ke ngoko luphakamisa uqoqosho olusebenzayo lwaseKenya kunye neziseko zoncedo zokuhamba, ukunxibelelana kunye nokufikelela kwimithombo kunye nothungelwano olugqibeleleyo lwemisebenzi eqatha. Uqoqosho lwaseKenya lunezona ziseko zintle kwi-HoA evumela uthungelwano oluqinileyo ukuba lusebenzise ukufikelela kwi-intanethi ukudibanisa kunye nokuququzelela imisebenzi.
Umkhosi waseKenya kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo yangaphandle iyabacaphukisa abantu bakhona abangamaSilamsi. Umzekelo, ubudlelwane obusondeleyo belizwe kunye ne-US kunye ne-Israel ayamkelekanga kubemi bakhe abangamaSilamsi. Ukubandakanyeka kwe-US eSomalia ngokomzekelo kujongwa njengokujolisa abantu abangamaSilamsi (Badurdeen, 2012). Xa imikhosi yaseKenya yadibana neFransi, iSomalia, kunye ne-Ethiopia ukuba ihlasele i-Al-Shabaab edibene ne-Al Qaeda ngo-2011 kumazantsi kunye nombindi weSomalia, iqela lomkhosi lasabela ngohlaselo lwaseKenya (ICG, 2014). Ukususela kuhlaselo lwabanqolobi ngoSeptemba ka-2013 kudederhu lweevenkile zaseWestgate eNairobi ukuya kwiYunivesithi yaseGarisa naseLamu County, iAl-Shabaab iye yakhululwa kuluntu lwaseKenya. Ukuba kufutshane kwelizwe laseKenya naseSomalia kunceda umdla omkhulu kakhulu. Kucacile ukuba i-radicalization yamaSilamsi eKenya iyanda kwaye ayinakuyeka kungekudala. Amaqhinga okulwa nobunqolobi aphula amalungelo oluntu kwaye enze ingcamango yokuba amaSilamsi aseKenya ajoliswe kuyo. Ubuthathaka bamaziko kunye nesakhiwo kunye nezikhalazo zembali zifuna ingqwalasela engxamisekileyo kwizixhobo ezibuyela umva ukuguqula iimeko ezilungele ukuguqulwa kwamaSilamsi. Ukuphucula ukumelwa kwezopolitiko kunye nokwandiswa kwendawo yezoqoqosho ngokudala amathuba abambe isithembiso sokuguqula imeko.
I-Al Qaeda kunye ne-ISIS e-Iraq naseSiriya
Ubume bokungasebenzi kakuhle kurhulumente wase-Iraq okhokelwa nguNuri Al Maliki kunye nokujongelwa phantsi kwabantu bamaSunni ngokwamaziko kunye nokuqhambuka kwemfazwe eSyria zizinto ezimbini eziphambili ezibonakala ngathi zikhokelele ekuveleni kwakhona kwe-Islamic State of Iraq (ISI) ekhohlakeleyo. kunye neSiriya (ISIS) (Hashim, 2014). Ekuqaleni yayinxulumene ne-Al Qaeda. I-ISIS yimikhosi yamaSalafist-jihadist kwaye yavela kwiqela elasekwa ngu-Abu Musab al-Zarqawi eJordan (AMZ). Injongo yokuqala ye-AMZ yayikulwa norhulumente waseJordani, kodwa yahluleka kwaye yafudukela e-Afghanistan ukulwa ne-mujahidin ngokumelene neSoviet. Emva kokurhoxa kweSoviets, ukubuyela kwakhe eJordan akukwazanga ukuvuselela imfazwe yakhe ngokuchasene noBukhosi baseJordanian. Kwakhona, wabuyela e-Afghanistan ukuya kuseka iKampu yoqeqesho lwamaSilamsi. Ukuhlasela kwe-US e-Iraq kwi-2003 kwatsala i-AMZ ukuba ihambe kwilizwe. Ukuwa ekugqibeleni kukaSaddam Hussein kubangele ukuvukela okubandakanya amaqela amahlanu ahlukeneyo kuquka i-AMZ ye-Jamaat-al-Tauhid Wal-Jihad (JTJ). Injongo yayo yayikukuchasa imikhosi yomanyano kunye nomkhosi wase-Iraq kunye namajoni aseShia kwaye emva koko kuseke i-Islamic State. Amaqhinga amasikizi e-AMZ asebenzisa iziqhushumbisi zokuzibulala zijolise kumaqela ahlukeneyo. Amaqhinga ayo amabi ajolise kumkhosi wamaShia, amaziko karhulumente kwaye adala intlekele yoluntu.
Kwi-2005, umbutho we-AMZ wajoyina i-al Qaeda e-Iraq (AQI) kwaye wabelane ngeengcamango zokugqibela zokuphelisa-ipolytheism. Amaqhinga ayo akhohlakeleyo nangona kunjalo adimaza kwaye abahlukanisa abemi baseSunni ababethiyile inqanaba labo elicekisekayo lokubulala kunye nentshabalalo. Ekugqibeleni i-AMZ yabulawa ngo-2006 ngumkhosi wase-US kwaye u-Abu Hamza al-Muhajir (owaziwa ngokuba ngu-Abu Ayub al-Masri) wanyuselwa esikhundleni sakhe. Kungekudala emva kwesi siganeko ukuba i-AQI yazisa ukusekwa kwe-Islamic State yase-Iraq phantsi kobunkokeli buka-Abu Omar al-Baghdadi (Hassan, 2014). Olu phuhliso lwalungeyonxalenye yenjongo yantlandlolo yombutho. Ngenxa yokubandakanyeka okukhulu ekuxhaseni iinzame ekufezekiseni injongo ayizange ibe nemithombo yoneleyo; kunye nolwakhiwo olubi lombutho lwakhokelela ekoyisweni kwawo ngo-2008. Ngelishwa, imibhiyozo yokubhiyozela ukoyiswa kwe-ISI yaba kokomzuzwana. Ukurhoxiswa kwemikhosi yase-US e-Iraq, kushiya uxanduva olukhulu lokhuseleko lwelizwe kumkhosi ohlaziyiweyo wase-Iraq kubonakalise ukuba ngumsebenzi omkhulu kwaye i-ISI yaphinda yaphindaphindeka, isebenzisa ubuthathaka obudalwe kukurhoxa kwe-US. Ngo-Okthobha ka-2009, i-ISI yayijongele phantsi ngokufanelekileyo iziseko ezingundoqo zoluntu ngolawulo lohlaselo lwabanqolobi.
Ukuvela kwakhona kwe-ISI kwaphikiswa ngempumelelo yi-US xa iinkokeli zayo zilandelwa kwaye zabulawa. Ngomhla we-28 ka-Epreli, u-Abu Ayub-Masri kunye no-Abu Umar Abdullal al Rashid al Baghdadi babulawa kwi-Joint-US-Iraq uhlaselo e-Tikrit (Hashim, 2014). Amanye amalungu obunkokeli be-ISI nawo asukelwa kwaye apheliswa ngohlaselo oluqhubekayo. Ubunkokeli obutsha phantsi kuka-Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim Ali al-Badri al Samarrai (aka Dr. Ibrahim Abu Dua) kwavela. U-Abu Dua usebenzisane no-Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi ukuququzelela ukuvela kwakhona kwe-ISI.
Ixesha le-2010-2013 libonelele ngeqela lezinto eziye zabona ukuvuselelwa kwe-ISI. Umbutho wahlengahlengiswa kwaye amandla awo omkhosi nawolawulo aphinda akhiwa; ungquzulwano olukhulayo phakathi kweenkokeli zase-Iraq kunye nabemi beSunni, ukwehla kwesiphumo se-al-Qaeda kunye nokuqhambuka kwemfazwe eSyria kwadala iimeko ezivumayo zokuvela kwakhona kwe-ISI. Ngaphantsi kwe-Baghdadi, injongo entsha ye-ISI yayikukuthetha ukubhukuqwa koorhulumente abangekho mthethweni ngakumbi urhulumente wase-Iraq kunye nokudalwa kwe-Islamic caliphate kuMbindi Mpuma. Umbutho watshintshwa ngokucwangcisiweyo waba yi-Islamic caliphate e-Iraq kwaye emva koko waba yi-Islamic State equka iSyria. Umbutho ngelo xesha wahlengahlengiswa ukuba ube namandla aqeqeshekileyo, abhetyebhetye namanyeneyo.
Ukumka kwemikhosi yase-US e-Iraq kushiye indawo enkulu yokhuseleko. Ubuqhophololo, ukungabikho kolungelelwano, kunye nokusilela ekusebenzeni kwakubonakala kakhulu. Emva koko kwangena ulwahlulo olukhulu phakathi kwabantu baseShia kunye namaSunni. Oku kuye kwabonakaliswa kukujongelwa phantsi kweenkokeli zase-Iraqi amaSunni kumelo lwezopolitiko kunye nomkhosi kunye nezinye iinkonzo zokhuseleko. Imvakalelo yokujongelwa phantsi yaqhubela amaSunni ukuya kwi-ISIS, umbutho ababewuthiyile ngaphambili ngenxa yokusebenzisa kwawo amandla akhohlakeleyo ekujoliswe kuko ukulwa norhulumente wase-Iraq. Ukuncipha kwempembelelo ye-al Qaeda kunye nemfazwe yase-Syria kwavula umda omtsha wemisebenzi egxininisekileyo ekuhlanganiseni i-Islamic State. Xa imfazwe yaseSyria yaqala ngoMatshi 2011, kwavulwa ithuba lokuqesha kunye nophuhliso lwenethiwekhi. I-ISIS yajoyina imfazwe ngokuchasene nolawulo lukaBashar Assad. UBaghdadi, inkokeli ye-ISIS, wathumela ubukhulu becala amagqala aseSyria njengamalungu eJabhat al-Nusra ukuya eSyria athatha ngokufanelekileyo umkhosi wase-Assad kwaye aseka "isakhiwo esisebenzayo nesiqeqeshekileyo sokusasazwa kokutya kunye namayeza" (Hashim, 2014) , iphe.7). Oku kwabangela umdla kubantu baseSyria ababethiywe yinkohlakalo yoMkhosi WaseSiriya (FSA). Iinzame zika-Baghdadi zokudibanisa unilaterally kunye ne-al Nusra ziye zatshitshiswa kwaye ubudlelwane obuqhekekileyo buhleli. NgoJuni ka-2014, i-ISIS yabuyela e-Iraq ihlasela ngokukrakra imikhosi yase-Iraqi kwaye yayiyeka imimandla. Impumelelo yayo yonke e-Iraq naseSyria yonyusa ubunkokeli be-ISIS obaqala ukuzibiza ngokuba lilizwe lamaSilamsi ukusuka nge-29 Juni, 2014.
IBoko Haram kunye neRadicalization eNigeria
Umntla weNigeria ngumxube ontsonkothileyo wenkolo nenkcubeko. Iindawo ezenza ummandla osemantla kakhulu ziquka iSokoto, iKano, iBorno, iYobe kunye neKaduna ithi zonke ziyintsokotha yenkcubeko kwaye zibandakanya ulwahlulo olubukhali lwamaKristu namaSilamsi. Abemi bangamaSilamsi kakhulu eSokoto, eKano naseMaiduguri kodwa bahlukana ngokulinganayo eKaduna (ICG, 2010). Ezi ndawo ziye zafumana ubundlobongela ngendlela yongquzulwano ngokwenkolo nangona rhoqo ukusukela ngeminyaka yoo-1980. Ukususela kwi-2009, i-Bauchi, i-Borno, i-Kano, i-Yobe, i-Adamawa, i-Niger kunye ne-Plateau ithi kunye ne-Federal Capital Territory, i-Abuja ifumene ubundlobongela obuququzelelwe yi-radical Boko Haram.
IBoko Haram, ihlelo lamaSilamsi anamandla aziwa ngegama lalo lesi-Arabhu - Jama'tu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati Wal-Jihad intsingiselo - Abantu abazinikele ekusasazeni iMfundiso yoMprofeti kunye neJihad (ICG, 2014). Ukuguqulelwa ngokoqobo, i-Boko Haram ithetha "imfundo yaseNtshona inqatshelwe" (Campbell, 2014). Le ntshukumo ye-Islamist radical ibunjwe yimbali yolawulo olugwenxa lwaseNigeria kunye nentlupheko egqithisileyo kumantla eNigeria.
Ngomzekelo kunye nomkhwa, i-Boko Haram yangoku idibaniswe ne-Maitatsine (lowo oqalekisayo) iqela elinamandla elavela e-Kano ekupheleni kwe-1970s. U-Mohammed Marwa, umfana waseCameroonia oselula uye wavela eKano waza wenza okulandelayo ngengcamango yobuSilamsi ekhawulezayo eziphakamisa njengomkhululi ngokuma okundlongondlongo ngokuchasene nemilinganiselo yasentshona kunye nempembelelo. Abalandeli bakaMarwa yayiliqela elikhulu lolutsha olungaphangeliyo. Ukujongana ngezikhondo zamehlo namapolisa kwakuyinto eqhelekileyo phakathi kwelo qela namapolisa. Eli qela langquzulana ngogonyamelo namapolisa ngowe-1980 kwindibano eyayiququzelelwa liqela eyavusa uqhushululu olukhulu. UMarwa wasweleka kolu dushe. Ezi ziphithiphithi zathatha iintsuku eziliqela kunye nokufa kwabantu abaninzi kunye nokutshatyalaliswa kwepropathi (ICG, 2010). Iqela le-Maitatsine lachithwa emva kwezidubedube kwaye kusenokwenzeka ukuba libonwe ngabasemagunyeni baseNigeria njengesiganeko esisodwa. Kwathatha amashumi eminyaka ukuba intshukumo efanayo ivele eMaiduguri kwi-2002 njenge 'Nigerian Taliban'.
Imvelaphi yangoku yeBoko Haram inokulandelwa kwiqela elikhulayo lolutsha elalinqula kwi-Alhaji Muhammadu Ndimi Mosque e-Maiduguri phantsi kwe-Mohammed Yusuf inkokeli yayo. UYusuf wayegxininiswe kakhulu nguSheikh Jaffar Mahmud Adam, isifundiswa esibalaseleyo kunye nomshumayeli. UYusuf ngokwakhe, ukuba ngumshumayeli onobubele, wandisa ukutolika kwakhe ngokugqithisileyo kweQuran eyayizonda imilinganiselo yaseNtshona kuquka namagunya ehlabathi (ICG, 2014).
Eyona njongo iphambili yeBoko Haram kukuseka umbuso wamaSilamsi osekwe ekubambeleleni ngokungqongqo kwimithetho-siseko yobuSilamsi kunye neenqobo ezisemgangathweni eziya kujongana nobubi borhwaphilizo kunye nolawulo olubi. U-Mohammed Yusuf waqala ukuhlasela ukusekwa kwamaSilamsi e-Maiduguri njenge "Inkohlakalo kwaye ingenakuhlawuleka" (Walker, 2012). I-Taliban yaseNigeria njengoko iqela layo lalibizwa ngoko nangoko yarhoxa eMaiduguri xa yaqala ukutsala isaziso sabasemagunyeni ngezimvo zayo ezibukhali, kwilali yaseKanama eYobe State kufutshane nomda waseNigeria neNiger kwaye yaseka uluntu olulawulwa ngokubambelela ngokungqongqo kubuSilamsi. imigaqo. Eli qela libandakanyeke kungquzulwano malunga namalungelo okuloba noluntu lwale ndawo, nto leyo ithe yatsala ingqalelo yamapolisa. Kungquzulwano oluqinisekisayo, eli qela labethwa ngenkohlakalo ngabasemagunyeni bomkhosi, labulala inkokeli yalo uMuhammed Ali.
Abaseleyo beqela babuyela eMaiduguri kwaye baphinda bahlanganisana phantsi kuka-Mohammed Yusuf owayenamanethiwekhi amakhulu afikelela kwamanye amazwe afana neBauchi, iYobe kunye neNiger States. Imisebenzi yabo yayingabonwa okanye ingahoywa. Inkqubo yentlalontle yokusasazwa kokutya, iShelter, kunye nezinye izincedisi zatsala abantu abaninzi, kuquka nenani elikhulu labantu abangaphangeliyo. Ngokufana neziganeko ze-Maitatsine e-Kano kwi-1980s, ubudlelwane phakathi kwe-Boko Haram kunye namaPolisa buye bahla bubundlobongela obungakumbi rhoqo phakathi kwe-2003 kunye ne-2008. Ezi ngxabano ezinobundlobongela zafika ngoJulayi 2009 xa amalungu eqela egatya umgaqo wokugqoka izigqoko zesithuthuthu. Xa kucelwa umngeni kwindawo yokuhlola, kwabakho ungquzulwano ngezixhobo phakathi kwamapolisa neqela emva kokudutyulwa kwamapolisa kwindawo yokuhlola. Olu qhushululu lwaqhubeka kangangeentsuku kwaye lwanwenwela eBauchi naseYobe. Amaziko karhulumente, ingakumbi amaziko amapolisa, aye ahlaselwa ngokungenamkhethe. U-Mohammed Yusuf kunye nomkhwe wakhe babanjwe ngumkhosi kwaye banikezelwa emapoliseni. Bobabini babulawa ngokungekho mthethweni. UBuji Foi, owayengumkhomishinala wemicimbi yezenkolo owabika emapoliseni ngokwakhe wabulawa ngokufanayo (Walker, 2013).
Izinto ezibangele i-radicalization yamaSilamsi eNigeria kukudibaniswa okuyinkimbinkimbi kweemeko zentlalo nezoqoqosho ezimbi, amaziko karhulumente abuthathaka, ulawulo olubi, ukuxhatshazwa kwamalungelo oluntu, kunye neempembelelo zangaphandle kunye nokuphuculwa kweziseko zobuchwepheshe. Ukusukela ngo-1999, amazwe aseNigeria afumene imali eninzi evela kurhulumente wobumbano. Ngezi zibonelelo, ukungakhathali kwezemali kunye nokugqwesa kwamagosa karhulumente kwanda. Ukusebenzisa iivoti zokhuseleko, ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwemali edibeneyo karhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekhaya kunye nokuxhaswa kwandisiwe, kwandisa inkcitho yemithombo yoluntu. Imiphumo kukunyuka kwentlupheko kunye neepesenti ze-70 zaseNigeria eziwela kwintlupheko enkulu. Umntla-mpuma, umbindi wemisebenzi yeBoko Haram, uhlaselwe kakhulu ngamanqanaba entlupheko aphantse abe ngama-90 ekhulwini (NBS, 2012).
Ngelixa imivuzo yoluntu nezibonelelo zonyukile, intswela-ngqesho nayo iqatsele. Oku kubangelwe ikakhulu ziziseko ezingundoqo ezibolayo, ukunqongophala kombane okungapheliyo kunye nokuthengwa kwempahla evela kumazwe angaphandle ngexabiso eliphantsi okuthe kwaphazamisa ushishino. Amawaka olutsha kuquka nabaphumeleleyo abaqeshwanga yaye abaphangeli, badanile, baphoxekile, yaye ngenxa yoko, kulula ukuba bagalelwe iinguqu.
Amaziko karhulumente eNigeria aye enziwa buthathaka ngokucwangcisiweyo burhwaphilizo kunye nokungohlwaywa. Inkqubo yobulungisa kulwaphulo-mthetho isoloko isengozini. Inkxaso-mali engekho mgangathweni kunye nenkqubo yokunyotywa iye yawatshabalalisa amapolisa kunye nenkundla. Umzekelo, amaxesha amaninzi u-Muhammed Yusuf wabanjwa kodwa angabekwa tyala. Phakathi kwe-2003 kunye ne-2009, i-Boko Haram phantsi kukaYusuf yahlanganisana, inethiwekhi, kwaye yadala ukuthengisa kwamanye amazwe, kunye nokufumana inkxaso-mali kunye noqeqesho oluvela eSaudi Arabia, eMauritania, eMali, naseAlgeria ngaphandle kokufunyanwa, okanye ngokulula, i-arhente yokhuseleko yaseNigeria kunye ne-intelligence arhente bona. (Walker, 2013; ICG, 2014). Ngo-2003, uYusuf waya eSaudi Arabia phantsi kokhuselo lwezifundo waza wabuya nenkxaso-mali evela kumaqela eSalafi ukuxhasa iskimu sentlalontle kuquka neskimu setyala. Iminikelo evela koosomashishini basekhaya nayo yaligcina iqela kwaye urhulumente waseNigeria wajonga kwelinye icala. Iintshumayelo zakhe ezibukhali zazithengiswa esidlangalaleni kwaye ngokukhululekileyo kuwo wonke umntla-mpuma kwaye uluntu lwezobuntlola okanye ilizwe laseNigeria alikwazanga ukwenza.
Ixesha lokufukanyelwa kweqela lichaza uqhagamshelo lwezopolitiko ekuveleni kweqela elinamandla elinamandla ngokwaneleyo ukolula imikhosi yezokhuseleko yelizwe. Umbutho wezopolitiko wamkela iqela ngenzuzo yonyulo. Ukubona ulutsha olubanzi olulandelwa nguYusuf, uModu Sheriff, owayesakuba nguSenator, wangena kwisivumelwano noYusuf ukuba athathe inzuzo yexabiso lokhetho lweqela. Ngembuyekezo uSherifu wayeza kuzalisekisa iSharia kwaye abonelele ngokuqeshwa kwezopolitiko kumalungu eqela. Ekuzuzeni uloyiso lonyulo, uSheriff waphinda warhoxa kwisivumelwano, enyanzela uYusuf ukuba aqale ukuhlasela uSherifu kunye norhulumente wakhe kwiintshumayelo zakhe ezibukhali (Montelos, 2014). Umoya we-radicalization ngakumbi wahlawuliswa kwaye iqela lahamba ngaphaya kolawulo lukarhulumente welizwe. UBuji Foi, umfundi kaYusuf wanikwa ithuba lokuqeshwa njengoMkomishinala weMicimbi yezeNkolo kwaye wasetyenziselwa ukuhambisa imali kwiqela kodwa oku kwaba kokwexeshana. Le nkxaso-mali yayisetyenziswe ngomkhwe kaYusuf, uBaba Fugu, ukufumana iingalo ngokukodwa ukusuka e-Chad, ngaphesheya komda waseNigeria (ICG, 2014).
I-radicalization yamaSilamsi kumntla-mpuma weNigeria yiBoko Haram ifumene ukongezwa okukhulu ngonxibelelwano lwangaphandle. Umbutho udityaniswe ne-Al Qaeda kunye ne-Afghan Taliban. Emva kokuvukela kukaJulayi 2009, amaninzi amalungu abo abalekela e-Afghanistan ukuze aqeqeshe (ICG, 2014). U-Osama Bin Laden uxhase ngemali umsebenzi womhlakulo wokuvela kweBoko Haram ngoMohammed Ali awadibana naye eSudan. U-Ali wabuyela ekhaya evela kwizifundo kwi-2002 waza wasebenzisa iprojekthi yokwakhiwa kweeseli kunye ne-US $ 3 yezigidi zebhajethi exhaswa nguBin Laden (ICG, 2014). Amalungu ehlelo elibukhali aye aqeqeshwa eSomalia, eAfghanistan, naseAlgeria. Imida evulekileyo kunye neChad neNigeria iququzelele le ntshukumo. Uqhagamshelwano kunye ne-Ansar Dine (Abaxhasi boKholo), i-Al Qaeda kwi-Maghreb (AQIM), kunye ne-Movement for Oneness kunye ne-Jihad (MUJAD) zisekwe kakuhle. Ezi nkokeli zala maqela zanikezela ngoqeqesho kunye nenkxaso-mali evela kumaziko azo eMauritania, eMali, naseAlgeria kumalungu ehlelo leBoko-Haram. La maqela akhulise izibonelelo zemali, amandla omkhosi, kunye nezixhobo zoqeqesho ezifumanekayo kwi-radical ihlelo eNigeria (uSergie noJohnson, i-2015).
Imfazwe echasene novukelo ibandakanya umthetho ochasene nabanqolobi kunye nokujongana ngezigalo phakathi kwehlelo kunye nokunyanzeliswa komthetho waseNigeria. Umthetho ochasene nobunqolobi waziswa ngo-2011 waza walungiswa ngo-2012 ukuze unike ulungelelwaniso olusembindini nge-ofisi yoMcebisi weSizwe woKhuseleko (NSA). Oku kwakhona yayikukuphelisa ii-arhente zokhuseleko phakathi ekulweni. Lo mthetho unikezela ngamagunya abanzi okukhetha ukubanjwa nokuvalelwa. Le migaqo kunye nongquzulwano ngezixhobo kukhokelele ekuphathweni gadalala kwamalungelo oluntu kuqukwa nokubulawa ngokungekho mthethweni kwamalungu ehlelo ababanjiweyo. Amalungu abalaseleyo ehlelo elibandakanya uMohammed Yusuf, uBuji Foi, uBaba Fugu, uMohammed Ali, kunye nabanye abaninzi baye babulawa ngale ndlela (HRW, 2012). IJoint Military Task Force (JTF) equka amajoni, amapolisa kunye nabasebenzi bezobuntlola babambe kwaye bavalele ngokufihlakeleyo abarhanelwa abarhanelwa belihlelo, basebenzise izigalo ezigqithisileyo kwaye babulala abarhanelwa ngokungekho semthethweni. Olu xhatshazo lwamalungelo oluntu lwahlukaniswa kwaye lujolise kuluntu lwamaSilamsi ngelixa lubandakanya iqela elichaphazelekayo ngokuchasene norhulumente. Ukufa kwamajoni angaphezu kwe-1,000 XNUMX elugcinweni lomkhosi kwawacaphukisa amalungu awo ukuba enze izinto eziyingozi ngakumbi.
I-Boko Haram ithathe ixesha lokukhula ngenxa yezikhalazo malunga nolawulo olubi kunye nokungalingani kumantla eNigeria. Iimpawu malunga nokugqabhuka kweradicalism zavela ngokuphandle ngo-2000. Emva koqhankqalazo ngowama-2009, impendulo yorhulumente engacwangciswanga ayikwazanga kuphumeza lukhulu kwaye amaqhinga kunye namaqhinga asetyenzisiweyo aye ayenza mandundu ngakumbi imeko-bume ethe endaweni yoko yandisa amandla okuziphatha okuqatha. Kuthathe uMongameli uGoodluck Jonathan de kube yi-2012 ukuba amkele ingozi ebangelwa lihlelo ekusindeni kweNigeria kunye nommandla. Ngokunyuka urhwaphilizo kunye nobutyebi obuphezulu, intlupheko ehambelana nzulu, okusingqongileyo kwenziwa kakuhle ukwenzela imisebenzi eqatha kwaye iBoko Haram yayisebenzisa kakuhle le meko kwaye yavela njengeqela elinomkhosi okanye elinoburhalarhume lobuSilamsi eliququzelela uhlaselo lobunqolobi kumaziko karhulumente, iicawe, iipaki zeemoto, kunye nezinye izibonelelo.
isiphelo
I-radicalization yamaSilamsi kuMbindi Mpuma kunye ne-Afrika engezantsi kweSahara inefuthe elikhulu kukhuseleko lwehlabathi. Le ngxelo isekelwe kwinto yokuba ukungazinzi okubangelwa yizenzo eziqatha ze-ISIS, i-Boko Haram, kunye ne-Al-Shabaab ziphindaphinda kwihlabathi jikelele. Le mibutho ayizange ivele kwi-blues. Iimeko ezilusizi zentlalo noqoqosho ezibadalileyo zisekho kwaye kubonakala ngathi akukho nto ingako iyenziwayo ukuzilungisa. Umzekelo, ulawulo olubi luseyinto eqhelekileyo kule mimandla. Nakuphi na ukufana kwedemokhrasi kusaza kuthwala kakhulu umgangatho wolawulo. De iimeko zentlalo kule mimandla ziphuculwe kakhulu, i-radicalization inokuba apha ixesha elide.
Kubalulekile ukuba amazwe aseNtshona abonise inkxalabo malunga nemeko kule mimandla kakhulu kunokuba kubonakala. Imbacu okanye ingxaki yabafuduki eYurophu ngenxa yokuzibandakanya kwe-ISIS e-Iraq kunye nemfazwe yaseSyria sisalathiso kule mfuno engxamisekileyo yokukhawulezisa izenzo zamazwe aseNtshona ukujongana neenkxalabo zokhuseleko kunye nokungazinzi okwenziwe yi-radicalization yamaSilamsi kuMbindi Mpuma. Abafuduki banokuba zizinto ezinokuthi zibekho. Kungenzeka ukuba amalungu ala mahlelo anamandla ayinxalenye yabafuduki abafudukela eYurophu. Bakuba bezinzile eYurophu, banokuthatha ixesha ukwakha iiseli kunye nothungelwano olunamandla oluya kuqala ukugrogrisa iYurophu kunye nehlabathi liphela.
Oorhulumente kule mimandla kufuneka baqalise ukuseka amanyathelo abandakanya ngakumbi kulawulo. AmaSilamsi aseKenya, eNigeria, kunye namaSunni eIraq anembali yezikhalazo ngoorhulumente bawo. Ezi zikhalazo zisekelwe kukumelwa kwabantu abajongelwe phantsi kuwo onke amacandelo aquka ezopolitiko, ezoqoqosho, nezomkhosi nezokhuseleko. Izicwangciso eziliqili ezibandakanyayo zithembisa ukomeleza imvakalelo yokubandakanyeka kunye noxanduva oludibeneyo. Izinto eziphakathi zibekwa ngcono ukujonga ukuziphatha okugqithisileyo phakathi kwamaqela abo.
Ngokwengingqi, iindawo zase-Iraq naseSyria zinokukhula phantsi kwe-ISIS. Izenzo zomkhosi zisenokukhokelela ekucuthekeni kwendawo kodwa kusenokwenzeka ukuba isiqwenga sommandla siya kuhlala siphantsi kolawulo lwabo. Kuloo mmandla, ukugaya abantu, uqeqesho nokufundiswa kuya kuphumelela. Ukusuka ekugcinweni kommandla onjalo, ukufikelela kumazwe angabamelwane kunokuqinisekiswa ngokuqhubekayo ngokuthumela izinto eziyingozi.
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