I-Radicalism kanye Nobuphekula eMpumalanga Ephakathi kanye ne-sub-Saharan Africa
abstract
Ukuqala kabusha kwe-radicalization ngaphakathi kwenkolo yamaSulumane ku-21st Ikhulu leminyaka libonakale kahle eMpumalanga Ephakathi kanye nase-Afrika eseningizimu yeSahara, ikakhulukazi kusukela ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yawo-2000. ISomalia, iKenya, iNigeria, kanye neMali, ngokusebenzisa i-Al Shabab kanye neBoko Haram, ibambe iqhaza ezenzweni zobushokobezi eziwuphawu lwalokhu kuqiniswa kwemimoya. I-Al Qaeda ne-ISIS imele le nhlangano e-Iraq naseSyria. Ama-Radical Islamists asebenzise izindlela zokubusa ezibuthakathaka, izikhungo zombuso ezibuthaka, ubumpofu obusabalele, kanye nezinye izimo zomphakathi ezidabukisayo ukuze afune ukusungula ubuSulumane e-Afrika eseningizimu yeSahara naseMpumalanga Ephakathi. Ukwehla kwezinga lobuholi, ukubusa, namandla avuselelayo okuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke kugqugquzele ukuqubuka kabusha kwe-Islamic fundamentalism kulezi zifunda ezinemithelela ezwakalayo ekuvikelekeni kwezwe kanye nokwakhiwa kombuso ikakhulukazi emiphakathini exube izinhlanga nezinkolo.
Isingeniso
Kusukela kuBoko Haram, iqembu lezidlamlilo lamaSulumane elisebenza enyakatho-mpumalanga yeNigeria, eCameroon, eNiger naseChad kuya e-Al Shabaab eKenya naseSomalia, i-Al Qaeda ne-ISIS e-Iraq naseSyria, e-Afrika eseningizimu yeSahara kanye naseMpumalanga Ephakathi bangene ngaphansi kohlobo olunzima I-radicalization yamaSulumane. Ukuhlasela kwamaphekula ezikhungweni zikahulumeni kanye nezakhamizi kanye nempi egcwele e-Iraq naseSyria eyethulwe yi-Islamic State e-Iraq naseSyria (ISIS) kubangele ukungazinzi nokungavikeleki kulezi zifunda iminyaka eminingana. Kusukela ekuqaleni okungaqondakali, la maqembu ezidlamlilo agxiliswe njengengxenye ebalulekile yokuphazamiseka kwezakhiwo zezokuphepha zaseMpumalanga Ephakathi kanye nase-Afrika eseningizimu yeSahara.
Izimpande zalezi zinhlangano eziqinile zigxile ezinkolelweni ezeqisayo zezenkolo, ezibangelwa izimo ezidabukisayo zenhlalo-mnotho, izikhungo zombuso ezintekenteke nezintekenteke, kanye nokubusa okungenampumelelo. E-Nigeria, ukungabi namandla kobuholi bezombusazwe kwavumela ukuvutshelwa kwehlelo libe yiqembu elinamandla elinamandla elinokuxhumana kwangaphandle kanye nokugxila kwangaphakathi okuqinile ngokwanele ukuphonsela inselelo izwe laseNigeria ngempumelelo kusukela ngo-2009 (ICG, 2010; Bauchi, 2009). Izingqinamba eziqinile zobumpofu, ukuswelakala komnotho, ukuntuleka kwemisebenzi kwentsha kanye nokwabiwa kabi kwezinsiza zomnotho kube yizizathu ezivundile zokuzalanisa i-radicalism e-Afrika naseMpumalanga Ephakathi (Padon, 2010).
Leli phepha lithi izikhungo zombuso ezibuthakathaka kanye nezimo zomnotho ezidabukisayo kulezi zifunda kanye nokubonakala kungakulungele ubuholi bezombangazwe ukuketula indices yokubusa, futhi buvuswe amandla okuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke, i-radical Islam ingase ibe lapha isikhathi eside. Okushiwo ukuthi ukuphepha kwezwe nokuthula nokuvikeleka komhlaba kungase kube kubi kakhulu, njengoba inkinga yabafuduki eYurophu iqhubeka. Iphepha lihlukaniswe izingxenye ezihlobene. Ngesethulo sokuvula esixhunywe ekuhloleni komqondo mayelana ne-radicalization yamaSulumane, isigaba sesithathu nesesine zembula ukunyakaza okunamandla e-Afrika eseningizimu yeSahara naseMpumalanga Ephakathi ngokulandelana. Isigaba sesihlanu sihlola imithelela yokunyakaza okuqinile ekuvikelekeni kwesifunda kanye nasemhlabeni jikelele. Izinketho zenqubomgomo yangaphandle kanye namasu kazwelonke kuhlanganiswe esiphethweni.
Iyini i-Islamic Radicalization?
Ukushiswa kwenhlalo nepolitiki okwenzeka eMpumalanga Ephakathi noma emazweni amaSulumane nase-Afrika kuwubufakazi obucacile bokubikezela kukaHuntington (1968) mayelana nokungqubuzana kwempucuko ngo-21st Ikhulu leminyaka. Imizabalazo yomlando phakathi kweNtshonalanga neMpumalanga iqhubekile nokuqinisekisa ngokusobala ukuthi yomibili le mihlaba ayinakuhlangana (Kipling, 1975). Lo mncintiswano umayelana namanani: I-Conservative noma inkululeko. Izingxabano zamasiko ngalo mqondo ziphatha amaSulumane njengeqembu elilinganayo lapho ehlukene ngempela. Isibonelo, izigaba ezifana namaSunni namaShia noma amaSalafi namaWahabbi ziyizinkomba ezicacile zokuhlukana phakathi kwamaqembu amaMuslim.
Kube negagasi lokunyakaza okunamandla, okuvame ukuphenduka izidlamlilo kulezi zifunda kusukela nge-19th ikhulu leminyaka. I-Radicalization ngokwayo iyinqubo ehilela umuntu oyedwa noma iqembu elifundiswe iqoqo lezinkolelo ezisekela izenzo zobuphekula ezingase zibonakale ekuziphatheni nasekuziphatheni komuntu (Rahimullah, Larmar & Abdalla, 2013, p. 20). I-Radicalism nokho ayifani nobuphekula. Ngokujwayelekile, i-radicalism kufanele yandulele ubuphekula kodwa, amaphekula angase avimbele ngisho nenqubo yokwenza i-radicalization. NgokukaRais (2009, ikhasi 2), ukungabibikho kwezindlela zomthethosisekelo, inkululeko yomuntu, ukwabiwa kwengcebo ngokungalingani, isakhiwo senhlalo esichemile kanye nezimo ezintekenteke zomthetho nokuhleleka kungenzeka kukhiqize ukunyakaza okukhulu kunoma yimuphi umphakathi othuthukile noma osathuthuka. Kodwa ukunyakaza okunamandla kungase kungabi amaqembu amaphekula. Ngakho-ke i-Radicalism izinqaba ngokuphelele izindlela ezikhona zokubamba iqhaza kwezombusazwe kanye nezinhlangano zezenhlalakahle, ezomnotho, nezombusazwe njengezingenele ukuxazulula izikhalo zomphakathi. Ngakho-ke, i-radicalism ilandisa noma igqugquzelwa ukukhanga kwezinguquko eziyisisekelo kuzo zonke izigaba zempilo yomphakathi. Lokhu kungase kube ubudlelwano bezepolitiki nezomnotho. Kulezi zikhombisi-ndlela, i-radicalism yenza imibono emisha edumile, inselele ukuba semthethweni kanye nokufaneleka kwemibono nezinkolelo ezikhona. Ibe isikhuthaza izinguquko ezinkulu njengendlela eyakhayo neqhubekayo yokuhlela kabusha umphakathi.
I-Radicalism ayiyona neze inkolo. Kungenzeka kunoma yisiphi isimo sengqondo noma sezwe. Abanye abalingisi banesandla ekuveleni kwento efana nenkohlakalo esezingeni eliphezulu. Ebusweni bokuswela kanye nokuswela okuphelele, umbukiso wokunethezeka osezingeni eliphezulu okukholakala ukuthi usukela ekuhlukunyezweni, ekumoshweni nasekuphambukisweni kwezinsiza zikahulumeni ukuze kufezeke izinjongo zangasese zabahlonishwayo kungase kubangele ukusabela okunqala kwengxenye yabantu. Ngakho-ke, ukukhungatheka phakathi kwabaphucwe umongo wohlaka lomphakathi kungase kubangele ngokuyisisekelo i-radicalism. U-Rahman (2009, p. 4) ufinyeze izici ezibalulekile ekuthuthukiseni isimo njenge:
Ukwehliswa kwemithetho kanye nokuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke njll. nakho kuyizici ezidala ukuqiniswa okukhulu emphakathini. Ezinye izici zihlanganisa ukuntuleka kobulungisa, izimo zengqondo zokuziphindiselela emphakathini, izinqubomgomo ezingalungile zikahulumeni/umbuso, ukusetshenziswa kwamandla ngokungafanele, nomuzwa wokuncishwa kanye nomthelela wako ongokwengqondo. Ukucwasa ngokwezigaba emphakathini nakho kunomthelela ezenzweni ze-radicalization.
Lezi zici zihlangene zingakha iqembu elinemibono eyeqisayo ngezimiso zamaSulumane namasiko nezinqubo ezingafuna ukudala izinguquko eziyisisekelo noma ezinkulu. Lolu hlobo lwenkolo lwe-radicalism yamaSulumane lusukela ekuchazeni okulinganiselwe kwe-Quran yiqembu noma umuntu ngamunye ukuze kuzuzwe izinhloso ezinkulu (Pavan & Murshed, 2009). Umqondo wama-radicals uwukubangela ushintsho olukhulu emphakathini ngenxa yokunganeliseki kwawo ngohlelo olukhona. Ngakho-ke i-Islamic radicalization iyinqubo yokunciphisa izinguquko ezisheshayo emphakathini njengempendulo ezingeni eliphansi lenhlalo-mnotho kanye namasiko oquqaba lwamaSulumane ngenhloso yokugcina ukuqina okuqinile kumagugu, imikhuba namasiko ngokuphambene nesimanje.
I-Islamic radicalization ithola inkulumo enemininingwane ekugqugquzeleni izenzo ezidlulele zodlame ekwenzeni ushintsho olukhulu. Lona umehluko ophawulekayo ovela ku-Islamic fundamentalist ofuna ukubuyela ku-Islamic fundamentals lapho ebhekene nenkohlakalo ngaphandle kokusebenzisa udlame. Inqubo ye-radicalization ikhulisa inani labantu abangamaSulumane, ubumpofu, ukuntuleka kwemisebenzi, ukungakwazi ukufunda nokubhala kanye nokubandlululwa.
Izici eziyingozi ku-radicalism phakathi kwamaSulumane ziyinkimbinkimbi futhi ziyahlukahluka. Okunye kwalokhu kuxhumene nokuba khona kwenhlangano yamaSalafi/Wahabi. Inguqulo ye-jihadist yenhlangano ye-Salafi iphikisana nokuba khona kwengcindezelo yasentshonalanga kanye nezempi emhlabeni wamaSulumane kanye nohulumeni abasekela abasentshonalanga e-Afrika eseningizimu yeSahara. Leli qembu lilwela ukumelana nezikhali. Nakuba Amalungu enhlangano yama-Wahabi ezama ukuhluka kumaSalafi, athambekele ekwamukeleni lokhu kubekezelelana okwedlulele kwabangakholwayo (Rahimullah, Larmar and Abdalla, 2013; Schwartz, 2007). Isici sesibili umthelela wezibalo zamaMuslim aqinile njengoSyeb Gutb, isazi esidumile saseGibhithe okukholakala ukuthi singumqalisi wokubeka isisekelo sobuSulumane obuqinile besimanje. Izimfundiso zika-Osama bin Laden no-Anwar Al Awlahi zingaphansi kwalesi sigaba. Isici sesithathu sokuthethelelwa kobuphekula sisekelwe ekuvukeleni okunodlame ngokumelene nohulumeni abanegunya, abakhohlakele nabacindezela amazwe asanda kuzimela ku-20.th Ikhulu leminyaka eMpumalanga Ephakathi naseNyakatho Afrika (Hassan, 2008). Okusondelene kakhulu nomthelela wezibalo eziqinile yisici segunya elithathwayo lezazi amaSulumane amaningi angase akhohliseke ukuba avume njengencazelo yeqiniso yeQuran (Ralumullah, et al, 2013). Ukuhwebelana kwembulunga yonke kanye nokwenza kube yisimanje nakho kube nomthelela omkhulu ekuthuthukiseni amaSulumane. Imibono ye-Radical Islamic isisabalale ngokushesha okukhulu emhlabeni wonke ifinyelela amaSulumane kalula ngobuchwepheshe ne-inthanethi. Imiqondo eqinile idlulele kulokhu ngokushesha okunomthelela omkhulu ekwandiseni i-radicalization (Veldhius noStaun, 2009). Ukwenziwa kwesimanjemanje kuguqule amaSulumane amaningi akubona njengokuphoqelelwa kwesiko namagugu aseNtshonalanga emhlabeni wamaSulumane (Lewis, 2003; Huntington, 1996; Roy, 2014).
Impikiswano yamasiko njengesisekelo se-radicalism iveza isiko njengento emile kanye nenkolo njenge-monolithic (uMurshed noPavan & 20009). U-Huntington (2006) uveza ukungqubuzana kwempucuko emqhudelwaneni ophakeme - ophansi phakathi kweNtshonalanga ne-Islam. Ngalo mqondo, i-radicalization yama-Islamic ifuna ukubekela inselele ubuncane bamandla abo ngokuphakamisa isiko labo elibonakala liphakeme libuswa isiko laseNtshonalanga elithathwa njengeliphakeme. U-Lewis (2003) uphawula ukuthi amaSulumane ayakwenyanya ukubusa kwawo kwamasiko ngomlando ngisho njengesiko elingcono kakhulu futhi yingakho inzondo yamazwe aseNtshonalanga nokuzimisela ukusebenzisa udlame ukwethula izinguquko ezinkulu. I-Islam njengenkolo inobuso obuningi emlandweni futhi ivezwa ezikhathini zamanje ngobuningi bobunikazi bezinga le-Muslim ngalinye kanye nokuqoqwa kwabo. Ngakho-ke, ubunikazi bamaSulumane ngabanye abukho futhi isiko liyaguquguquka, lishintsha nezimo ezibonakalayo njengoba zishintsha. Ukusebenzisa isiko nenkolo njengezici ezibeka engcupheni ekwenzeni i-radicalization kufanele kucatshangelwe ukuze kuhambisane.
Amaqembu e-Radicalized anxenxa amalungu noma ama-mujahedeen avela emithonjeni nezizinda ezihlukahlukene. Iqembu elikhulu lama-radical elements libuthwa entsheni. Lesi sigaba sobudala sigcwele umbono ophelele kanye nenkolelo yokushintsha umhlaba. La mandla asetshenziselwe amaqembu aqinile ekutholeni amalungu amasha. Icasulwe inkulumo-ze yenkulumo-ze ethempelini lasendaweni noma ezikoleni, amakhasethi evidiyo noma alalelwayo noma i-inthanethi ngisho nasekhaya, enye intsha ejwayele ukubekela inselele izindinganiso ezimisiwe zabazali bayo, othisha kanye nomphakathi ithatha lesi sikhathi ukuze iqiniswe.
Amajihadist amaningi angabalandeli bobuzwe bezenkolo abaphoqwa ukuphuma emazweni abo ngezinhlelo zokuphepha ezinokhahlo. Emazweni angaphandle, bakhomba amanethiwekhi ama-Islamic aqinile kanye nemisebenzi yabo bese besebenzisa imibuso yamaSulumane emazweni abo.
Ngemuva kokuhlaselwa kwe-United States ngoSepthemba 11, ama-radicals amaningi acasulwa umuzwa wokungabi nabulungisa, ukwesaba kanye nentukuthelo ngokumelene ne-US kanye nomoya wempi yokulwa ne-Islam eyakhiwe nguBin Laden, imiphakathi yaseDiaspora yaba umthombo omkhulu wokuqashwa. njengama-radicals akhule ekhaya. AmaSulumane ase-Europe naseCanada aqashwe ukuthi ajoyine izinhlangano eziqinile ukuze ashushise i-jihad yomhlaba wonke. I-Diaspora Muslim izizwa ilulazekile ngenxa yokuswela nokucwaswa eYurophu (Lewis, 2003; Murshed and Pavan, 2009).
Amanethiwekhi obungani nokuhlobana asetshenziswe njengemithombo yangempela yokuqasha. Lezi zisetshenziswe "njengezindlela zokwethula imibono eqinile, ukugcina ukuzibophezela ngokusebenzisa ubungane ku-jihadism, noma ukuhlinzeka ngoxhumana nabo abathembekile ngezinjongo zokusebenza" (Gendron, 2006, p. 12).
Ukuguqulela ku-Islam nakho kungumthombo omkhulu wokuqashwa njengamasosha ahamba ngezinyawo e-Al Qaeda namanye amanethiwekhi ahlukene. Ukujwayelana neYurophu kwenza abaguquki babe nama-radicals athembisayo ngokuzinikela nokuzibophezela esifundweni. Abesifazane nabo sebephenduke umthombo wangempela wokubhalisela ukuzibulala. Ukusuka e-Chechnya kuya eNigeria nase-Palestine, abesifazane baqashwe ngempumelelo futhi batshalwa ekuhlaselweni kokuzibulala.
Ukuvela kwamaqembu ama-radicalized and awesabekayo e-Afrika eseningizimu ye-Sahara naseMpumalanga Ephakathi ngokumelene nesizinda salezi zici ezijwayelekile kudinga ukuhlolisiswa kokuhlangenwe nakho okukhethekile okubonisa okungavamile kanye nengemuva elicashile leqembu ngalinye. Lokhu kuyadingeka ukuze kutholwe indlela i-Islamic radicalization esebenza ngayo kulezi zimo kanye nomthelela ongaba khona wokusimama nokuvikeleka komhlaba.
I-Radical Movements in Sub-Saharan Africa
Ngo-1979, amaSulumane aseShia agumbuqela iShah yase-Iran yezwe neyobushiqela. Lokhu kuguquguquka kwe-Iranian kwaba ukuqala kwe-radicalism yamaSulumane yangaleso sikhathi (Rubin, 1998). AmaSulumane ahlanganiswa ukuthuthukiswa kwethuba lokubuyiselwa kwezwe lamaSulumane elihlanzekile nohulumeni base-Arab abazungezile abakhohlakele abasekela ukusekelwa kwaseNtshonalanga. Uguquko lwaba nomthelela omkhulu ekuqapheleni kwamaSulumane kanye nomuzwa wokuthi ungubani (Gendron, 2006). Ngemva kokulandela uguquko lwamaShia kwaba ukuhlasela kwezempi yaseSoviet e-Afghanistan futhi ngo-1979. Izinkulungwane ezimbalwa zamaMuslim zathuthela e-Afghanistan ukuyoxosha ama-infidel angamaKhomanisi. I-Afghanistan ibe yithuba elinamandla lokuqeqeshwa kwama-jihadists. Amajihadist asafufusa bathole ukuqeqeshwa kanye namakhono endaweni evikelekile yemizabalazo yabo yasendaweni. Kwakuse-Afghanistan lapho i-jihadism yomhlaba wonke yaqanjwa futhi yakhuliswa lapho kuqhutshwa inhlangano ka-Osama bin Laden yeSalafi – Wahabist.
I-Afghanistan nakuba yayiyinkundla enkulu lapho imibono eqinile yamaSulumane yaqala khona ngamakhono asebenzayo ezempi atholakala; kwavela nezinye izinkundla ezifana ne-Algeria, Egypt, Kashmir neChechnya. I-Somalia ne-Mali nazo zingenele umbango futhi seziphenduke izizinda eziphephile zokuqeqeshwa kwezakhi ezinamandla. I-Al Qaeda eyahola ukuhlasela kwe-United States ngoSepthemba 11, 2001 kwaba ukuzalwa kweJihad yomhlaba wonke kanye nokusabela kwe-US ngokungenelela e-Iraq nase-Afghanistan kwaba yisizinda esiqinisekile sokuthi i-Ummah yomhlaba wonke ebumbene ibhekane nesitha sabo esifanayo. Amaqembu endawo ahlanganyela emzabalazweni kulezi zemidlalo yeshashalazi nezinye eziningi ukuze azame ukunqoba isitha saseNtshonalanga kanye nohulumeni wabo wama-Arab abeseka. Basebenzisana namanye amaqembu angaphandle kweMpumalanga Ephakathi ukuze bazame ukumisa ubuSulumane obumsulwa ezingxenyeni ze-Afrika eseningizimu yeSahara. Ngokuwa kweSomalia ekuqaleni kwawo-1990, indawo evundile yayivulekele ukuvutshelwa kwe-radical Islam oPhondweni lwe-Afrika.
I-Radical Islam eSomalia, Kenya naseNigeria
ISomalia, etholakala oPhondweni lwe-Afrika (HOA) isemngceleni weKenya eMpumalanga Afrika. I-HOA iyisifunda esinamasu, i-artery enkulu kanye nomzila wezokuthutha zasolwandle emhlabeni jikelele (Ali, 2008, p.1). I-Kenya, umnotho omkhulu kunayo yonke eMpumalanga Afrika nayo inamasu njengesizinda somnotho wesifunda. Lesi sifunda siyikhaya lamasiko, izizwe nezinkolo ezehlukene ezakha umphakathi oguquguqukayo e-Afrika. I-HOA ibiwumgwaqo onqamulayo wokusebenzelana phakathi kwama-Asiya, ama-Arabhu nama-Afrika ngohwebo. Ngenxa yokushintshashintsha kwamasiko nenkolo kwalesi sifunda, kugcwele izingxabano, izingxabano zendawo kanye nezimpi zombango. ISomalia njengezwe ngokwesibonelo ayikaze ikwazi ukuthula kusukela kwashona uSiad Barrre. Izwe lihlakazwe ngokwehlukana ngomzabalazo wangaphakathi wezikhali wokuthola izimangalo zezindawo. Ukuwa kweziphathimandla ezimaphakathi akukatholwa kabusha ngempumelelo kusukela ekuqaleni kwawo-1990.
Ukusabalala kwezinxushunxushu nokungazinzi kunikeze indawo evundile ye-radicalization yamaSulumane. Lesi sigaba sisekelwe emlandweni wodlame wamakoloni kanye nenkathi yeMpi Yomshoshaphansi, okuveza udlame lwangaleso sikhathi esifundeni. U-Ali (2008) uveze ukuthi lokho okubonakale njengesiko eligxilile lodlame esifundeni kuwumkhiqizo wezinguquko ezishintsha njalo kwezombusazwe zalesi sifunda ikakhulukazi embangweni wezikhundla zezepolitiki. I-radicalization ye-Islamic ngakho-ke ibonakala njengempande esheshayo emandleni futhi igxile kakhulu ngamanethiwekhi asunguliwe amaqembu amakhulu.
Inqubo ye-radicalization ophondweni lwe-Afrika iqhutshwa ukubusa okungalungile. Abantu ngabanye kanye namaqembu aphushelwe ekuphelelweni yithemba baphendukela ekwamukeleni inguqulo ye-Islamic purist ngokuvukela umbuso oncisha izakhamuzi ngazo zonke izinhlobo zokungabi nabulungisa, inkohlakalo kanye nokwephulwa kwamalungelo abantu (Ali, 2008). Abantu ngabanye bahlukaniswa ngezindlela ezimbili ezinkulu. Okokuqala, intsha ifundiswa ukutolika kweQuran ngothisha abaqinile bamaWahabi abaqeqeshwe eMpumalanga Ephakathi. Ngakho-ke le ntsha igxilile kulo mbono onobudlova. Okwesibili, ukusebenzisa indawo lapho abantu bebhekana khona nengcindezelo, abalinyazwa futhi balahlwa yizinduna zempi, i-Al Qaeda yesimanje ephefumulelwe i-jihadist eqeqeshwe eMpumalanga Ephakathi yabuyela eSomalia. Impela, kusukela e-Ethiopia, e-Kenya Djibouti nase-Sudan, ukubusa okungekuhle ngentando yeningi yokuzenzisa kuqhubekisele izakhamuzi kulabo besifazane abashisekayo abashumayela i-purist Islam ukuthi bangenise izinguquko ezinkulu namalungelo kanye nokusungula ubulungiswa.
I-Al-Shabaab, okusho ukuthi 'Intsha' yasungulwa ngalezi zinqubo ezikabili. Ngokwethula izindlela ezithandwa ngabantu njengokususwa kwezivimbamgwaqo, ukuhlinzeka ngezokuphepha nokujezisa labo ababexhaphaza imiphakathi yendawo, leli qembu labonakala lihlangabezana nezidingo zabantu abavamile baseSomalia, okuyisenzo esanele sokuzuza ukwesekwa kwabo. Leli qembu lilinganiselwa kumalungu ahlomile angaphezu kwe-1,000 anechibi eligciniwe lentsha engaphezu kuka-3000 nabazwelayo (Ali, 2008). Ngokukhula okusheshayo kwamaSulumane emphakathini ompofu njengeSomalia, izimo zenhlalo-mnotho ezidabukisayo zithande ukusheshisa ukuqiniswa komphakathi waseSomalia. Uma ukubusa okuhle kubonakala kungenalo ithuba lokuba nomthelela ku-HoA, i-Islamic radicalization ihlelelwe ukuthi igxiliswe ngokuqinile futhi ikhule futhi ingase ihlale injalo isikhathi esithile esikhathini esizayo. Inqubo ye-radicalization inikezwe amandla yi-jihad yomhlaba wonke. Ithelevishini yesathelayithi ibe yithuba lokuba nomthelela kwabashisekeli besifunda ngezithombe zempi yase-Iraq naseSyria. I-inthanethi manje isiwumthombo omkhulu we-radicalization ngokwakhiwa nokugcinwa kwezingosi ngamaqembu ontamolukhuni. Izimali ezithunyelwa nge-elekthronikhi ziye zabhebhethekisa ukukhula kwe-radicalization, kuyilapho inzalo yamazwe angaphandle kwi-HoA igcine isithombe sokuncika kanye nengcindezelo emelelwa ubuKristu. Lezi zithombe zigqame ophondweni lwase-Afrika ikakhulukazi e-Ogaden, Oromia naseZanzibar.
E-Kenya amabutho e-radicalization ayingxube eyinkimbinkimbi yezinto zesakhiwo nezikhungo, izikhalazo, inqubomgomo yangaphandle nezempi, kanye ne-jihad yomhlaba wonke (Patterson, 2015). Lawa mandla awakwazi ukwenza umqondo wokulandisa kwe-radicalization ngaphandle kokubhekisela kumbono ofanele womlando wokuhlukahluka kwezenhlalo namasiko eKenya kanye nokuba seduze kwayo kwezwe neSomalia.
AmaSulumane aseKenya alinganiselwa ezigidini ezi-4.3. Lokhu kulinganiselwa kumaphesenti ayi-10 abantu baseKenya abayizigidi ezingama-38.6 ngokobalo lwabantu lwango-2009 (ICG, 2012). Iningi lamaSulumane aseKenya lihlala ezindaweni ezisogwini ezifundazweni zasoGwini naseMpumalanga kanye naseNairobi ikakhulukazi endaweni yase-Eastleigh. AmaSulumane aseKenya ayingxube enkulu yesiSwahili noma isiSomalia, ama-Arabhu nama-Asiya. I-Contemporary Islamic radicalization eKenya ithola ugqozi oluqinile kusukela ekukhuphukeni okumangalisayo kwe-Al-Shabaab eseNingizimu yeSomalia ngo-2009. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi iveze ukukhathazeka mayelana nenkambiso kanye nesimo se-radicalization eKenya futhi okubaluleke kakhulu, njengosongo ekuvikelekeni nasekuzinzeni kwezwe. HoA. E-Kenya, iqembu le-Salafi Jihadi elishiseka kakhulu nelikhuthele elisebenzisana eduze ne-Al - Shabaab seliqhamuke. Isikhungo Sentsha YamaSulumane esizinze eKenya (MYC) siyingxenye esabekayo yale nethiwekhi. Leli qembu lezidlamlilo elikhule ekhaya lihlasela abezokuphepha bangaphakathi eKenya ngosekelo oluqinile lwe-Al-Shabaab.
I-Al-Shabaab yaqala njengeqembu lamasosha ku-Union of Islamic Courts futhi yakhuphukela ekuphonseni inselelo ngobudlova ukuthathwa kwe-Ethiopia eNingizimu neSomalia kusukela ngo-2006 kuya ku-2009 (ICG, 2012). Ngemva kokuhoxa kwamasosha ase-Ethiopia ngo-2009, leli qembu lasheshe lavala isikhala futhi lathatha ingxenye enkulu yeningizimu nemaphakathi neSomalia. Ngemva kokuzinza eSomalia, leli qembu lasabela ekuguquguqukeni kwezombusazwe zesifunda futhi lathumela i-radicalism yalo eKenya eyavunguza ngo-2011 kulandela ukungenelela kombutho wezokuvikela waseKenya eSomalia.
I-Contemporary radicalization eKenya isekelwe ekuqaguleni komlando okwaveza lesi simo ngendlela eyingozi njengamanje kusukela ekuqaleni kwawo-1990 kuya kowezi-2000. AmaSulumane aseKenya abhekana nenqwaba yezikhalazo eziningi zazo ezingokomlando. Ngokwesibonelo, ukubusa kwamakoloni aseBrithani kwawabukela phansi amaSulumane futhi awawaphathi njengabaSwahili noma abangebona abomdabu. Lo mgomo wabashiya besemaphethelweni ezomnotho, ezepolitiki kanye nomphakathi waseKenya. Ngemuva kwenkululeko kaDaniel Arab Moi wahola uhulumeni esebenzisa iKenyan African National Union (KANU), njengombuso weqembu elilodwa wasekela ukucwaswa kwezepolitiki kwamaMuslim ngesikhathi sokubusa kwamakholoni. Ngakho-ke, ngenxa yokuntuleka kokumelela kwezombusazwe, ukuntuleka kwamathuba ezomnotho, ezemfundo namanye abangelwa ukucwasa okuhlelekile, okuhambisana nokucindezelwa kombuso ngendlela yokuhlukunyezwa kwamalungelo abantu kanye nemithetho emelene nobuphekula namaqhinga, amanye amaSulumane agqugquzela impendulo enobudlova ngokumelene namaKenya. umbuso kanye nomphakathi. Ugu nezifundazwe ezisenyakatho-mpumalanga kanye nendawo yase-Eastleigh ezindaweni zaseNairobi zinesibalo esiphezulu sabantu abangasebenzi, iningi labo okungamaSulumane. AmaSulumane esiFundazweni saseLamu nasezindaweni ezisogwini azizwa ehlukanisiwe futhi ekhungathekile uhlelo oluwancisha umoya futhi alungele ukwamukela imibono eyeqisayo.
I-Kenya, njengamanye amazwe e-HoA, ibonakala ngohlelo lokuphatha olubuthaka. Izikhungo zombuso ezibucayi zibuthakathaka njengohlelo lwezobulungiswa bobugebengu. Ukungajeziswa kuyinto evamile. Ezokuphepha emngceleni zintekenteke futhi ukulethwa kwezinsiza zomphakathi nakho kuvame ukuba kubi kakhulu. Ukusabalala kwenkohlakalo kucekele phansi izikhungo zombuso ezingakwazi ukuletha izinsiza zomphakathi ezihlanganisa ukuphepha emngceleni kanye nezinye izinsiza ezakhamuzini. Okushayeke kakhulu ingxenye yabantu abangamaSulumane emphakathini waseKenya (Patterson, 2015). Isizakala ngesimiso senhlalo esintekenteke, uhlelo lwemfundo yamaSulumane aseMadrassas lufundisa intsha emibonweni eyeqisayo eshintshashintsha kakhulu. Ngakho-ke intsha eqinile ithuthukisa umnotho osebenzayo waseKenya nengqalasizinda ukuze ihambe, ixhumane futhi ifinyelele izinsiza kanye namanethiwekhi amakhulu ukuze enze imisebenzi eqinile. Umnotho waseKenya unengqalasizinda engcono kakhulu ku-HoA evumela amanethiwekhi amakhulu ukuthi asebenzise ukufinyelela kwe-inthanethi ukuze ahlanganise futhi ahlele imisebenzi.
Izinqubomgomo zezempi nezangaphandle zaseKenya ziyabacasula abantu bakhona abangamaSulumane. Isibonelo, ubudlelwano obuseduze bezwe ne-US kanye ne-Israel abumukelekile kubantu bayo abangamaSulumane. Ukuzibandakanya kwe-US eSomalia ngokwesibonelo kubukwa njengokuqondise abantu abangamaSulumane (Badurdeen, 2012). Ngesikhathi amasosha aseKenya esebenzisana neFrance, iSomalia ne-Ethiopia ukuze ahlasele i-Al-Shabaab edlelana ne-Al Qaeda ngo-2011 eningizimu namaphakathi neSomalia, leli qembu lasabela ngochungechunge lokuhlasela eKenya (ICG, 2014). Kusukela ekuhlaselweni kwamaphekula ngoSepthemba 2013 enxanxatheleni yezitolo iWestgate eNairobi kuya eNyuvesi yaseGarisa naseLamu County, i-Al-Shabaab iye yadedelwa emphakathini waseKenya. Ukuba seduze kwezwe laseKenya naseSomalia kusiza intshisekelo enkulu kakhulu. Kuyacaca ukuthi i-radicalization yamaSulumane eKenya iyanda futhi ingase inganqamuki maduze. Amaqhinga okulwa namaphekula aphula amalungelo abantu futhi adala isithombe sokuthi amaSulumane aseKenya yiwona aqondiswe kuwo. Ubuthakathaka besikhungo kanye nesakhiwo esinezikhalazo zomlando budinga ukunakwa okuphuthumayo ukuze kuguqulwe izimo ezivumela ukuqiniswa kwamaMuslim. Ukuthuthukisa ukumeleleka kwezombusazwe kanye nokwandiswa kwendawo yezomnotho ngokudala amathuba kubambe isithembiso sokuhlehlisa lo mkhuba.
I-Al Qaeda kanye ne-ISIS e-Iraq naseSyria
Ukungasebenzi kahle kukahulumeni wase-Iraq oholwa nguNuri Al Maliki kanye nokucwaswa kwabantu abangamaSunni ezikhungweni kanye nokuqubuka kwempi eSyria yizici ezimbili ezibalulekile ezibonakala ziholele ekuveleni kabusha kwe-Islamic State of Iraq (ISI) enonya. kanye neSyria (ISIS) (Hashim, 2014). Ekuqaleni ibixhumene ne-Al Qaeda. I-ISIS ingamabutho eSalafist- jihadist futhi yavela eqenjini elasungulwa ngu-Abu Musab al-Zarqawi eJordani (AMZ). Inhloso yokuqala ye-AMZ kwakuwukulwa nohulumeni waseJordani, kodwa yehluleka wabe esethuthela e-Afghanistan ukuze alwe nama-mujahidin ngokumelene namaSoviet. Ekuhoxisweni kwamaSoviet, ukubuyela kwakhe eJordani kwehlulekile ukuvuselela impi yakhe ngokumelene noBukhosi baseJordanian. Nakulokhu, wabuyela e-Afghanistan ukuyosungula Ikamu lokuqeqesha amasosha amaSulumane. Ukuhlasela kwe-Iraq e-Iraq ngo-2003 kwaheha i-AMZ ukuthi ithuthele kuleli. Ukuwa ekugcineni kuka-Saddam Hussein kwadala ukuvukela umbuso okubandakanya amaqembu amahlanu ahlukene okuhlanganisa ne-AMZ's Jamaat-al-Tauhid Wal-Jihad (JTJ). Inhloso yawo bekuwukumelana namabutho omfelandawonye kanye namasosha ase-Iraq kanye namasosha eShia bese kusungulwa i-Islamic State. Amaqhinga ahlasimulisayo e-AMZ asebenzisa abaqhubi bebhomu aqondise amaqembu ahlukahlukene. Amaqhinga ayo anonya aqondise amasosha aseShia, izikhungo zikahulumeni futhi adala inhlekelele yokusiza abantu.
Ngo-2005, inhlangano ye-AMZ yajoyina i-al Qaeda e-Iraq (AQI) futhi yabelana ngemibono yakamuva yokuqeda ukukholelwa kweningi. Amaqhinga awo anonya nokho adumaza futhi ahlukanisa abantu baseSunni ababenengwa izinga labo elinyanyekayo lokubulala nokubhubhisa. U-AMZ wagcina ebulewe ngo-2006 ngamasosha aseMelika kwathi u-Abu Hamza al-Muhajir (owaziwa nangokuthi u-Abu Ayub al-Masri) wakhushulelwa esikhundleni sakhe. Kungemva kwalesi sigameko lapho i-AQI yamemezela khona ukusungulwa kwe-Islamic State of Iraq ngaphansi kobuholi buka-Abu Omar al-Baghdadi (Hassan, 2014). Lokhu kuthuthukiswa bekungeyona ingxenye yenhloso yokuqala yenhlangano. Uma kubhekwa ukuzibandakanya okukhulu ekusekeleni imizamo ekufezeni inhloso ayizange ibe nezinsiza ezanele; kanye nesakhiwo esingesihle senhlangano kwaholela ekuhlulweni kwayo ngo-2008. Ngeshwa, injabulo yokugubha ukunqotshwa kwe-ISI kwaba okomzuzwana. Ukuhoxa kwamasosha ase-US e-Iraq, okushiya umthwalo omkhulu wezokuphepha kuzwelonke embuthweni wamasosha ase-Iraqi aguquliwe kubonakale kuwumsebenzi omkhulu futhi i-ISI yaphinde yaqina, isebenzisa ubuthakathaka obudalwe ukuhoxa kwe-US. Ngo-Okthoba 2009, i-ISI yayisicekele phansi ingqalasizinda yomphakathi ngombuso wokuhlasela kwamaphekula.
Ukuvela kabusha kwe-ISI kwaphonselwa inselelo ngempumelelo yi-US lapho abaholi bayo bexoshwa futhi bebulawa. Ngomhla zingama-28 kuMbasa, u-Abu Ayub-Masri no-Abu Umar Abdullal al Rashid al Baghdadi babulawa ekugaseleni okuhlangene kwe-US-Iraq e-Tikrit (Hashim, 2014). Amanye amalungu obuholi be-ISI nawo ajahwa futhi aqedwa ngokuhlaselwa okuqhubekayo. Kwavela ubuholi obusha ngaphansi kuka-Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim Ali al-Badri al Samarrai (owaziwa nangokuthi uDkt Ibrahim Abu Dua). U-Abu Dua usebenzisane no-Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi ukuze kube lula ukuvela kabusha kwe-ISI.
Isikhathi sika-2010-2013 sinikeze umlaza wezinto ezibone ukuvuselelwa kwe-ISI. Inhlangano yahlelwa kabusha futhi amandla ayo ezempi nawokuphatha avuselelwa; ukungqubuzana okwandayo phakathi kobuholi base-Iraqi kanye nenani labantu abangamaSunni, ukuncipha komphumela we-al-Qaeda kanye nokuqubuka kwempi eSyria kwadala izimo ezivumayo zokuvela kabusha kwe-ISI. Ngaphansi kwe-Baghdadi, inhloso entsha ye-ISI kwakuwukugqamisa ukuketulwa kohulumeni abangekho emthethweni ikakhulukazi uhulumeni wase-Iraq kanye nokudalwa kwe-Caliphate yamaSulumane eMpumalanga Ephakathi. Inhlangano yaguqulwa ngokuhlelekile yaba yi-Islamic caliphate e-Iraq futhi kamuva yaba yi-Islamic State ehlanganisa iSyria. Ngaleso sikhathi le nhlangano yahlelwa kabusha yaba amandla anesimilo, aguquguqukayo futhi ahlangene.
Ukuhamba kwamasosha ase-US e-Iraq kushiye isikhala esikhulu sezokuphepha. Inkohlakalo, ukungahleleki kahle, nokusilela ekusebenzeni kwakubonakala kakhulu. Kwabe sekungena ukwehlukana okukhulu phakathi kwamaShia namaSunni. Lokhu kwafakazelwa ukucwaswa kobuholi base-Iraqi amaSunni ekumeleleni kwezombusazwe nakwezempi nezinye izinsiza zokuphepha. Umuzwa wokubandlululwa waqhubela amaSunni ku-ISIS, inhlangano ababekade beyinyanya ngenxa yokusebenzisa kwayo amandla anonya ekuhlosweni kwezakhamuzi ukulwa nohulumeni wase-Iraq. Ukuncipha kwethonya le-al Qaeda kanye nempi yaseSyria kwavula umngcele omusha wemisebenzi eqinile ekuhlanganisweni koMbuso WamaSulumane. Lapho impi eSyria iqala ngoMashi 2011, kwavulwa ithuba lokuqasha kanye nokuthuthukiswa kwenethiwekhi okukhulu. I-ISIS yajoyina impi yokulwa nombuso kaBashar Assad. U-Baghdadi, umholi we-ISIS, wathumela ikakhulukazi omakadebona baseSyria njengamalungu e-Jabhat al-Nusra eSyria abathatha ngempumelelo amasosha ase-Assad futhi basungula "isakhiwo esisebenzayo nesinezigwegwe sokusatshalaliswa kokudla nemithi" (Hashim, 2014 , ikhasi 7). Lokhu kwakhanga abantu baseSyria ababezondwa unya lweFree Syrian Army (FSA). Imizamo ka-Baghdadi yokuhlanganisa i-al Nusra ngokuhlanganyela ne-al Nusra iye yachithwa futhi ubudlelwano obuphukile busekhona. NgoJuni 2014, i-ISIS yabuyela e-Iraq ihlasela ngonya amabutho ase-Iraq futhi yayeka nezindawo. Impumelelo yayo yonke e-Iraq naseSyria yakhulisa ubuholi be-ISIS obaqala ukuzibiza ngokuthi izwe lamaSulumane kusukela zingama-29 kuNhlangulana wezi-2014.
IBoko Haram kanye neRadicalization eNigeria
INyakatho yeNigeria iyingxube eyinkimbinkimbi yenkolo namasiko. Izindawo ezakha enyakatho ngokwedlulele zifaka i-Sokoto, i-Kano, i-Borno, i-Yobe kanye nezifunda zase-Kaduna zonke eziyinkimbinkimbi yamasiko futhi zifaka ukuhlukana okubukhali kobuKristu namaSulumane. Isibalo sabantu singamaSulumane kakhulu eSokoto, eKano naseMaiduguri kodwa sihlukana kancane ngokulinganayo eKaduna (ICG, 2010). Lezi zindawo zike zabhekana nodlame ngenxa yokungqubuzana kwezenkolo kusukela ngeminyaka yawo-1980. Kusukela ngo-2009, i-Bauchi, i-Borno, i-Kano, i-Yobe, i-Adamawa, i-Niger kanye ne-Plateau izifunda kanye ne-Federal Capital Territory, i-Abuja ihlangabezane nodlame oluhlelwe yiqembu le-Boko Haram.
IBoko Haram, ihlelo lobuSulumane elinamandla elaziwa ngegama layo lesi-Arabhu - Jama'tu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati Wal-Jihad okusho – Abantu abazibophezele ekusakazeni imfundiso yoMphrofethi kanye neJihad (ICG, 2014). Ngokuhunyushwa ngokwezwi nezwi, iBoko Haram isho ukuthi “imfundo yaseNtshonalanga ayivunyelwe” (Campbell, 2014). Le nhlangano yama-Islamist yakhiwe umlando wokubusa okungekuhle kweNigeria kanye nobubha obudlulele enyakatho yeNigeria.
Ngephethini nangenkambiso, i-Boko Haram yangaleso sikhathi ixhumene neqembu le-Maitatsine (othukayo) elavela e-Kano ngasekupheleni kwawo-1970. U-Mohammed Marwa, osemusha waseCameroonia oshisekayo wavela e-Kano futhi wakha okulandelayo ngombono we-Islamic radical eziphakamisa njengomkhululi onolaka olumelene nezimiso nomthelela wasentshonalanga. Abalandeli bakaMarwa babeyiqembu elikhulu lentsha engasebenzi. Ukuxabana namaphoyisa kwakuyinto evamile ebudlelwaneni baleli qembu namaphoyisa. Leli qembu labhekana nodlame namaphoyisa ngo-1980 emhlanganweni ovulelekile owawuhlelwe yiqembu owasusa izibhelu. UMarwa washona kulezi zibhelu. Lezi zibhelu zathatha izinsuku ezimbalwa kwashona abantu abaningi kanye nokucekelwa phansi kwempahla (ICG, 2010). Iqembu le-Maitatsine lachithwa ngemuva kwezibhelu futhi kungenzeka ukuthi iziphathimandla zaseNigeria zabonwa njengomcimbi owodwa. Kuthathe amashumi eminyaka ukuthi kuvele umnyakazo ofanayo eMaiduguri ngo-2002 njenge-'Nigerian Taliban'.
Imvelaphi yangaleso sikhathi yeBoko Haram ingalandelelwa eqenjini lentsha eqinile elalikhonza e-Alhaji Muhammadu Ndimi Mosque eMaiduguri ngaphansi komholi walo uMohammed Yusuf. UYusuf wayeshiswe kakhulu nguSheikh Jaffar Mahmud Adam, isazi esivelele esinamandla futhi umshumayeli. UYusuf ngokwakhe, njengomshumayeli onothando, wandisa incazelo yakhe ejulile ye-Quran eyayizonda izindinganiso zaseNtshonalanga kuhlanganise neziphathimandla zezwe (ICG, 2014).
Inhloso enkulu ye-Boko Haram ukusungula umbuso wamaSulumane osekelwe ekubambeleleni ngokuqinile emigomeni nezimiso zamaSulumane ezizobhekana nenkohlakalo nokubusa okubi. U-Mohammed Yusuf waqala ukuhlasela ukusungulwa kwamaSulumane e-Maiduguri ngokuthi "Ekhohlakele futhi engenakukhokhelwa" (Walker, 2012). I-Taliban yaseNigeria njengoba iqembu layo lalibizwa ngaleso sikhathi yahoxa eMaiduguri lapho iqala ukuheha isaziso seziphathimandla ngemibono yayo eqinile, edolobhaneni laseKanama eSifundazweni saseYobe eduze nomngcele waseNigeria neNiger futhi yasungula umphakathi olawulwa ngokuqinile ukunamathela kumaSulumane. izimiso. Leli qembu belibambene nomphakathi wakule ndawo mayelana namalungelo okudoba, nokwadonsa amehlo amaphoyisa. Ekubhekaneni kokuqinisekisa, leli qembu laphihlizwa ngesihluku yiziphathimandla zezempi, kwashona umholi walo u-Muhammed Ali.
Izinsalela zeqembu zabuyela eMaiduguri zaphinde zahlanganiswa ngaphansi kuka-Mohammed Yusuf owayenamanethiwekhi amakhulu afinyelela kwezinye izifundazwe ezifana neBauchi, Yobe kanye neNiger States. Imisebenzi yabo yayinganakwa noma yashaywa indiva. Uhlelo lwezenhlalakahle lokusabalalisa ukudla, Indawo yokuhlala, nezinye izinsiza zakhanga abantu abengeziwe, kuhlanganise nenani elikhulu labangasebenzi. Njengezehlakalo zaseMaitatsine e-Kano ngeminyaka yawo-1980, ubudlelwano phakathi kweBoko Haram namaphoyisa buye bawohloka baba udlame olwengeziwe phakathi kuka-2003 no-2008. Lokhu kubhekana ngobudlova kwafinyelela umvuthwandaba ngo-July 2009 lapho amalungu eqembu enqaba umthetho wokugqoka izigqoko zezithuthuthu. Ngesikhathi bephonselwa inselelo endaweni yokuhlola, kuqubuke impi phakathi kwamaphoyisa naleli qembu kulandela ukudutshulwa kwamaphoyisa endaweni yokuhlola. Lezi zibhelu zaqhubeka izinsuku futhi zasakazekela eBauchi naseYobe. Izikhungo zikahulumeni, ikakhulukazi izikhungo zamaphoyisa, zahlaselwa ngokungahleliwe. U-Mohammed Yusuf kanye noyisezala baboshwe amasosha base benikelwa emaphoyiseni. Bobabili babulawa ngaphandle kwenkantolo. UBuji Foi, owayengukhomishana wezindaba zezenkolo owabika emaphoyiseni ngokwakhe wabulawa ngendlela efanayo (Walker, 2013).
Izici ezibangele ukugqama kwe-Islamic eNigeria ukuhlangana okuyinkimbinkimbi kwezimo zezenhlalo nezomnotho ezimbi, izikhungo zezwe ezibuthakathaka, ukubusa okubi, ukuhlukumeza amalungelo abantu, kanye nomthelela wangaphandle kanye nengqalasizinda yezobuchwepheshe ethuthukisiwe. Kusukela ngo-1999, izifundazwe zaseNigeria zithole izinsiza zezimali ezinkulu kuhulumeni wobumbano. Ngalezi zinsiza, ubudedengu bezezimali kanye nokugabadela kwezikhulu zikahulumeni kwakhula ngesivinini. Kusetshenziswa amavoti okuvikela, ukusetshenziswa kabi kwezimali zombuso ohlanganyelwe kanye nohulumeni basekhaya kwandisiwe, okujulisa ukumoshwa kwezinsiza zomphakathi. Imiphumela yokwanda kobumpofu ngamaphesenti angama-70 abantu baseNigeria abampofu kakhulu. Inyakatho-mpumalanga, isikhungo semisebenzi yeBoko Haram, ihlaselwe kakhulu izinga lobumpofu elicishe libe ngamaphesenti angama-90 (NBS, 2012).
Yize enyukile amaholo omphakathi kanye nezibonelelo, ukuntuleka kwemisebenzi kunyukile. Lokhu kudalwa kakhulu yingqalasizinda ebolayo, ukushoda kukagesi okungapheli kanye nezimpahla ezishibhile ezivela kwamanye amazwe ezikhungathekise ukusungulwa kwezimboni. Izinkulungwane zentsha kuhlanganise nabathweswe iziqu azinamsebenzi futhi azisebenzi, zikhungathekile, zidumele, futhi ngenxa yalokho, zibuthelwa kalula ukuba zenze izinguquko.
Izikhungo zombuso eNigeria zenziwe buthakathaka ngokuhlelekile ngenxa yenkohlakalo nokungajeziswa. Uhlelo lwezobulungiswa bobugebengu luhlala lusengozini. Ukuntuleka kwezimali kanye nohlelo lokugwazisa sekucekele phansi amaphoyisa kanye nezamajaji. Isibonelo, izikhathi eziningi u-Muhammed Yusuf waboshwa kodwa wangabekwa icala. Phakathi kuka-2003 no-2009, i-Boko Haram ngaphansi kukaYusuf yahlanganisa kabusha, yaxhumanisa, futhi yakha izinto ezithengiswayo kwezinye izifundazwe, futhi yathola uxhaso nokuqeqeshwa okuvela eSaudi Arabia, Mauritania, Mali, nase-Algeria ngaphandle kokutholwa, noma nje, izikhungo zezokuphepha nezobunhloli zaseNigeria azinakanga. bona. (Walker, 2013; ICG, 2014). Ngo-2003, uYusuf waya eSaudi Arabia ngaphansi kwekhava yezifundo futhi wabuya nemali evela kumaqembu eSalafi ukuze axhase uhlelo lwezenhlalakahle kuhlanganise nohlelo lwezikweletu. Iminikelo evela kosomabhizinisi bendawo nayo yagcina iqembu futhi izwe laseNigeria labheka ngenye indlela. Izintshumayelo zakhe ezinohlonze zazithengiswa esidlangalaleni futhi ngokukhululekile kulo lonke elaseNyakatho-mpumalanga futhi umphakathi wezobunhloli noma izwe laseNigeria alikwazanga ukwenza okuthile.
Isikhathi sokufukamela seqembu sichaza ukuxhumana kwezepolitiki nokuvela kweqembu eliqinile eliqine ngokwanele ukwelula amabutho ezokuphepha kazwelonke. Inhlangano yezepolitiki yamukele leli qembu ukuze lizuze okhethweni. Ebona intsha ebanzi ilandela uYusuf, uModu Sheriff, owayeyiSenator, wenza isivumelwano noYusuf ukuze asizakale ngenani leqembu okhethweni. Ngokubuyisela uSherifu kwakufanele asebenzise iSharia futhi anikeze ukuqokwa kwezombusazwe kumalungu eqembu. Lapho ethola ukunqoba okhethweni, uSheriff wahoxa esivumelwaneni, waphoqa uYusuf ukuthi aqale ukuhlasela uSherifu kanye nohulumeni wakhe ezintshumayelweni zakhe ezinohlonze (Montelos, 2014). Umkhathi wokuqiniswa okwengeziwe wakhokhiswa futhi leli qembu lahamba ngaphezu kokulawula kukahulumeni wezwe. U-Buji Foi, ongumfundi kaYusuf wanikezwa ithuba lokuqokwa njengoKhomishana Wezindaba Zezenkolo futhi wasetshenziselwa ukuhambisa imali eqenjini kodwa lokhu kwaba okwesikhashana. Lolu xhaso lwasetshenziswa ngomkhwe kaYusuf, uBaba Fugu, ukuthola izikhali ikakhulukazi e-Chad, ngaphesheya nje komngcele waseNigeria (ICG, 2014).
I-radicalization ye-Islamic enyakatho-mpumalanga ye-Nigeria yi-Boko Haram ithole ukuthuthukiswa okukhulu ngokusebenzisa izixhumanisi zangaphandle. Inhlangano ixhumene ne-Al Qaeda kanye ne-Afghan Taliban. Ngemuva kokuvukela umbuso kaJulayi 2009, amalungu abo amaningi abalekela e-Afghanistan ukuze aqeqeshwe (ICG, 2014). U-Osama Bin Laden uxhase ngezimali umsebenzi wokuqhamuka kweBoko Haram ngoMohammed Ali ahlangana naye eSudan. U-Ali wabuyela ekhaya evela ezifundweni ngo-2002 futhi wasebenzisa iphrojekthi yokwakhiwa kwamaseli ngesabelomali sase-US $ 3 million esixhaswe nguBin Laden (ICG, 2014). Amalungu ehlelo eliqinile nawo aqeqeshwa eSomalia, Afghanistan, nase-Algeria. Imingcele evulekile ne-Chad neNigeria yenza lokhu kuhamba. Izixhumanisi ne-Ansar Dine (Abasekeli Bokholo), i-Al Qaeda e-Maghreb (AQIM), kanye ne-Movement for Oneness and Jihad (MUJAD) sezisungulwe kahle. Abaholi balamaqembu banikeze ukuqeqeshwa kanye noxhaso lwezimali ezizindeni zabo eMauritania, eMali, nase-Algeria kumalungu ehlelo leBoko-Haram. Lawa maqembu akhuphule izinsiza zezezimali, amakhono ezempi, kanye nezindawo zokuqeqesha ezitholakala ehlelweni elikhulu eNigeria (uSergie noJohnson, 2015).
Impi emelene nokuvukela umbuso ibandakanya umthetho omelene namaphekula kanye nokubhekana ngezikhali phakathi kwehlelo nabezomthetho baseNigeria. Umthetho wokulwa nobushokobezi wethulwa ngo-2011 futhi wachibiyelwa ngo-2012 ukuze unikeze ukuxhumana okumaphakathi ngehhovisi loMeluleki Wezokuphepha Kazwelonke (NSA). Lokhu bekuwukuqeda nezinhlaka ezisebenzisana nezokuphepha ekulweni. Lo mthetho unikeza amandla abanzi okuzikhethela okubopha nokuboshwa. Lezi zimiso kanye nokubhekana ngezikhali kuholele ekuhlukunyezweni kwamalungelo abantu okuhlanganisa nokubulawa ngaphandle kwenkantolo kwamalungu ehlelo aboshiwe. Amalungu aqavile aleli hlelo okuhlanganisa uMohammed Yusuf, uBuji Foi, uBaba Fugu, uMohammed Ali, nabanye abaningi babulawe ngale ndlela (HRW, 2012). IJoint Military Task Force (JTF) ehlanganisa amasosha, amaphoyisa kanye nabasebenzi bezobunhloli babophe ngasese futhi bavalele abasolwa abasolwa baleli hlelo, basebenzise amandla amakhulu futhi babulala abasolwa abaningi ngaphandle kwenkantolo. Lokhu kuhlukumeza amalungelo abantu kwahlukanisa futhi kwaqondisa umphakathi wamaSulumane ngenkathi kuqhudelana neqembu elithinteke kakhulu nombuso. Ukufa kwamasosha angaphezu kuka-1,000 XNUMX esitokisini sezempi kwacasula amalungu awo ukuba aziphathe kabi nakakhulu.
IBoko Haram ithathe isikhathi ukushuba ngenxa yezikhalazo ngokubusa okungekuhle nokungalingani enyakatho neNigeria. Izinkomba mayelana nokuqubuka kwe-radicalism zavela obala ngo-2000. Ngenxa yokungalawuleki kwezombangazwe, ukusabela kwamasu okuvela kuhulumeni kwabambezeleka. Ngemva kokuvukela umbuso ngo-2009, ukusabela kombuso ngokungaqondile akukwazanga ukuzuza okuningi futhi amasu namaqhinga asetshenzisiwe abhebhethekisa imvelo kunalokho okwandise amandla okuziphatha okuqinile. Kuthathe uMengameli uGoodluck Jonathan kwaze kwaba ngu-2012 ukuthi amukele ingozi edalwe yiqembu ekusindeni kweNigeria nesifunda. Ngokukhula kwenkohlakalo nokunetha kwabantu abaphezulu, ubumpofu obukhulayo obuhambisanayo, imvelo yenziwe kahle ukuze kwenziwe izinto ezinkulu futhi iBoko Haram yasizakala ngalesi simo futhi yavela njengeqembu elinamandla noma eliqinile lama-Islamic elihlela ukuhlasela kwamaphekula ezikhungweni zikahulumeni, amasonto, amapaki ezimoto, nezinye izinsiza.
Isiphetho
I-radicalization yamaSulumane eMpumalanga Ephakathi kanye ne-sub-Saharan Africa inomthelela omkhulu ekuvikelekeni komhlaba. Lokhu kugomela kusekelwe eqinisweni lokuthi ukuntengantenga okudalwe yizenzo ezinohlonze ze-ISIS, Boko Haram, kanye ne-Al-Shabaab kuzwakala emhlabeni wonke. Lezi zinhlangano azizange ziqhamuke ku-blues. Izimo ezidabukisayo zezenhlalo nezomnotho ezabadala zisekhona futhi kubonakala sengathi akukuningi okwenziwayo ukuzithuthukisa. Isibonelo, ukubusa okubi kuseyindawo evamile kulezi zifunda. Noma yikuphi ukufana kwentando yeningi kusazothinta kakhulu izinga lokubusa. Kuze kube yilapho izimo zomphakathi kulezi zifunda zithuthukiswa kakhulu, i-radicalization ingase ibe khona isikhathi eside.
Kubalulekile ukuthi amazwe aseNtshonalanga akhombise ukukhathazeka ngesimo salezi zifunda kakhulu kunalokho obekusobala. Inkinga yababaleki noma yabafuduki eYurophu ngenxa yokuzibandakanya kwe-ISIS e-Iraq kanye nempi yaseSyria iyinkomba yalesi sidingo esiphuthumayo sokusheshisa izenzo zamazwe aseNtshonalanga ukubhekana nokuphepha nokungazinzi okudalwe yi-radicalization yamaSulumane eMpumalanga Ephakathi. Abafuduki bangase babe ama-radical elements. Kungenzeka ukuthi amalungu ala mahlelo aqinile ayingxenye yabafuduki abafudukela eYurophu. Uma sebezinzile eYurophu, bangathatha isikhathi ukwakha amaseli namanethiwekhi amakhulu angaqala ukwesabisa iYurophu nomhlaba wonke.
Ohulumeni kulezi zifunda kumele baqale ukusungula izindlela ezibandakanya wonke umuntu ekubuseni. AmaSulumane aseKenya, Nigeria, kanye namaSunni e-Iraq anomlando wokukhononda ngohulumeni bawo. Lezi zikhalo zisekelwe ekumeleleni imingcele kuzo zonke izinhlaka ezihlanganisa ezombusazwe, ezomnotho, ezempi kanye nezokuphepha. Amasu ahlanganisayo athembisa ukuthuthukisa umuzwa wokuba ngowabanye kanye nomthwalo wemfanelo njengeqoqo. Ama-elementi amaphakathi abe esebekwa kangcono ukuze ahlole ukuziphatha okukhulu phakathi kwamaqembu abo.
Ngokwesifunda, izindawo zase-Iraq naseSyria zingakhula ngaphansi kwe-ISIS. Izenzo zezempi zingase zibangele ukuncipha kwendawo kodwa maningi amathuba okuthi ingxenye yendawo ihlale ingaphansi kokulawula kwabo. Kuleyo nsimu, ukubuthwa, ukuqeqeshwa, nokufundiswa kuyochuma. Kusukela ekunakekeleni indawo enjalo, ukufinyelela emazweni angomakhelwane kungaqinisekiswa ngokuthekelisa okuqhubekayo kwezinto eziyingozi.
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