Ubudlelwano phakathi kwe-Ethno-Religious Conflious and Economic Growth: Ukuhlaziywa Kwemibhalo Yezemfundo
Abstract:
Lolu cwaningo lubika ngokuhlaziywa kocwaningo lwezazi olugxile ebudlelwaneni phakathi kokungqubuzana kwenkolo nokukhula komnotho. Leli phepha lazisa abahlanganyeli bengqungquthela, othisha, abaholi bamabhizinisi, namalungu omphakathi mayelana nezincwadi zezazi nenqubo yocwaningo esetshenziswa ekuhloleni ubudlelwano phakathi kokungqubuzana kwenkolo nokukhula komnotho. Indlela esetshenziswe kulolu cwaningo kwakuwukuhlola izindatshana zejenali ezibukezwe ontanga ezazigxile ekungqubuzaneni kwenkolo nokukhula komnotho. Izincwadi zocwaningo zikhethwe kuzingosi zolwazi, eziku-inthanethi futhi zonke izindatshana bekufanele zihlangabezane nemfuneko yokubuyekezwa kontanga. Isihloko ngasinye sihlolwe ngokuvumelana nedatha kanye/noma okuguquguqukayo okuhlanganisa ukungqubuzana, umthelela wezomnotho, indlela esetshenziswe ekuhlaziyeni ubudlelwano phakathi kwezingxabano ze-ethno-religious kanye nomnotho, kanye nemodeli yetiyori. Njengoba ukukhula komnotho kubalulekile ekuhleleni umnotho nasekuthuthukisweni kwenqubomgomo, ukuhlaziya izincwadi zezazi kuhambisana nalolu hlelo. Izingxabano kanye nezindleko zalezi zingxabano zithinta ukukhula komnotho emazweni asathuthuka, futhi zifundwa emazweni nezimo ezihlukahlukene, okuhlanganisa imiphakathi yaseShayina yabokufika, i-China-Pakistan, i-Pakistan, i-India ne-Pakistan, i-Sri Lanka, i-Nigeria, i-Israel, i-Osh conflicts, i-NATO, ukufuduka, ubuzwe kanye nempi yombango, kanye nempi kanye nemakethe yamasheya. Leli phepha lethula ifomethi yokuhlolwa kwama-athikili ejenali yezazi mayelana nobudlelwano phakathi kokungqubuzana kwe-ethno-religious nolwazi lokukhula komnotho mayelana nesiqondiso sobudlelwano. Ukwengeza, inikeza imodeli yokuhlola ukuhlobana kwezingxabano zenkolo noma udlame kanye nokukhula komnotho. Izigaba ezine zigqamisa amazwe athile ngezinjongo zalolu cwaningo.
Landa Lesi sihloko
Isiphakamiso Esiphakanyisiwe:
Kominkiewicz, FB (2022). Ubudlelwano phakathi kokungqubuzana kwe-ethno-religious kanye nokukhula komnotho: Ukuhlaziywa kwemibhalo yezifundo. Ijenali Yokuphila Ndawonye, 7(1), i-38-57.
Ulwazi lwe-athikili:
@Isihloko{Kominkiewicz2022}
Isihloko = {Ubudlelwano phakathi kwengxabano ye-Ethno-Religious kanye Nokukhula Komnotho: Ukuhlaziywa Kwezincwadi Ze-Scholarly}
Umbhali = {Frances Bernard Kominkiewicz}
I-Url = {https://icermediation.org/relationship-between-ethno-religious-conflict-and-economic-growth-analysis-of-the-scholarly-literature/}
I-ISSN = {2373-6615 (Phrinta); 2373-6631 (Ku-inthanethi)}
Unyaka = {2022}
Idethi = {2022-12-18}
Ijenali = {Journal of Living Together}
Ivolumu = {7}
Inombolo = {1}
Amakhasi = {38-57}
Umshicileli = {Isikhungo Samazwe Ngamazwe Sokulamula Kwe-Ethno-Religious}
Ikheli = {White Plains, New York}
Uhlelo = {2022}.
Isingeniso
Ukubaluleka kokutadisha ubudlelwano phakathi kwezingxabano ze-ethno-religious kanye nokukhula komnotho akuphikiswa. Ukuba nalolu lwazi kubalulekile ekusebenzeni nabantu ukuze kuthinte ukwakhiwa kokuthula. Ukungqubuzana kubonakala "njengamandla abumba emnothweni womhlaba" (Ghadar, 2006, p. 15). Izingxabano zobuzwe noma ezenkolo zithathwa njengezibalulekile zezingxabano zangaphakathi zamazwe asathuthuka kodwa ziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu ukuthi zingafundwa njengezingxabano zenkolo noma zobuzwe (Kim, 2009). Umthelela ekukhuleni komnotho ubalulekile ukuthi uhlolwe ukuze siqhubekele phambili ngokwakha ukuthula. Umthelela wokungqubuzana emalini ebonakalayo kanye nokukhiqizwa, kanye nezindleko zezomnotho zokulwa kwangempela, kungaba ukugxila kokuqala okulandelwa yinoma yiziphi izinguquko esimweni somnotho esibangelwa ukungqubuzana okungathinta umthelela wezomnotho wokungqubuzana ekuthuthukeni kwezwe ( Schein, 2017). Ukuhlolwa kwalezi zici kubaluleke kakhulu ekunqumeni umthelela emnothweni kunokuba izwe liphumelele noma lilahlekelwe ukungqubuzana (Schein, 2017). Akulungile ngaso sonke isikhathi ukuthi ukunqoba ukungqubuzana kungase kubangele izinguquko ezinhle esimweni somnotho, kanye nokulahlekelwa ukungqubuzana kubangela imiphumela emibi endaweni yezomnotho (Schein, 2017). Ukungqubuzana kunganqotshwa, kodwa uma ukungqubuzana kubangele imiphumela emibi endaweni yezomnotho, umnotho ungase ulinyazwe (Schein, 2017). Ukulahlekelwa ukungqubuzana kungaholela ekuthuthukisweni kwesimo somnotho, ngakho-ke intuthuko yezwe isizwa ukungqubuzana (Schein, 2017).
Amaqembu amaningi azibona engamalungu esiko elivamile, noma ngabe elenkolo noma lobuhlanga, angase ahileleke ezingxabanweni ukuze aqhubeke nokuzibusa (Stewart, 2002). Umthelela wezomnotho ubonakala esitatimendeni sokuthi ukungqubuzana nempi kuthinta ukusatshalaliswa kwabantu (Warsame & Wilhelmsson, 2019). Inkinga enkulu yababaleki emazweni aneminotho ephuka kalula njengeTunisia, iJordani, iLebanon, ne-Djibouti idalwe yimpi yombango e-Iraq, eLibya, eYemen naseSyria (Karam & Zaki, 2016).
Indlela yokusebenzisa
Ukuze kuhlolwe umphumela wokungqubuzana kwe-ethno-religious ekukhuleni komnotho, kwaqalwa ukuhlaziywa kwezincwadi zezazi ezikhona ezazigxile kuleli gama. Kutholwe ama-athikili akhuluma ngezinto eziguquguqukayo ezinjengobuphekula, impi yobushokobezi, nezingxabano emazweni athile ahlobene nezingxabano zobuzwe nezenkolo, futhi lezo zihloko kuphela zejenali ezibuyekezwe ontanga yomfundi ezazikhuluma ngobudlelwano bokungqubuzana kobuhlanga kanye/noma kwezenkolo nokukhula komnotho okwakukhona. kufakwe ekuhlaziyweni kwezincwadi zocwaningo.
Ukutadisha imiphumela yezomnotho yezinto ze-ethno-religious kungaba umsebenzi omkhulu njengoba kunezincwadi eziningi ezikhuluma ngezinkinga kule ndawo. Ukubukeza inani elikhulu locwaningo ngesihloko kunzima kubacwaningi abafunda izincwadi (Bellefontaine & Lee, 2014; Glass, 1977; Light & Smith, 1971). Ngakho-ke lokhu kuhlaziya kwakuklanyelwe ukubhekana nombuzo wocwaningo wobudlelwano bokungqubuzana kobuhlanga kanye/noma kwezenkolo nokukhula komnotho ngokusebenzisa okuguquguqukayo okuhlonziwe. Ucwaningo olubuyekeziwe luhlanganisa izindlela ezehlukene, okuhlanganisa izindlela ezisezingeni eliphezulu, zobuningi, nezixubile (ikhwalithi nenani).
Ukusetshenziswa Kwemininingwane Yocwaningo Lwe-inthanethi
Imininingo egciniwe yocwaningo lwe-inthanethi etholakala kumtapo wolwazi wombhali isetshenziswe ekusesheni ukuze kutholwe ama-athikili ejenali ahlobene, abuyekezwe ngontanga. Lapho kuseshwa izincwadi, kwasetshenziswa umkhawulo othi “Amajenali Esikole (Abuyekezwe Ontanga). Ngenxa yemikhakha ehlukahlukene kanye nemikhakha eyahlukene yokungqubuzana kwenkolo yezizwe ngezizwe kanye nokukhula komnotho, kucwaningwe imininingwane eminingi ehlukahlukene ye-inthanethi. Izizindalwazi eziku-inthanethi eziseshwayo zifakiwe, kodwa azikhawulelwe kulokhu okulandelayo:
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Incazelo Yokuguquguquka
Umthelela wezomnotho wokungqubuzana kwe-ethno-religious udinga izincazelo zezinto eziguquguqukayo okukhulunywa ngazo kulokhu kubuyekezwa kwezincwadi zocwaningo. Njengoba uGhadar (2006) elandisa, “Incazelo yengxabano ngokwayo iyashintsha njengoba ukwenzeka kwezingxabano ezivamile zamazwe ngamazwe kuqhubeka nokuncipha ngenkathi izigameko zempi yombango kanye nobuphekula zanda” (ikhasi 15). Amagama okusesha achazwa ngokuguquguqukayo, ngakho-ke incazelo yamagama okusesha ibalulekile ekubuyekezweni kwezincwadi. Ekubuyekezeni izincwadi, incazelo evamile "yengxabano ye-ethno-religious" kanye "nokukhula komnotho" ayikwazanga ukutholakala. ngayinye se nalawo magama afanayo, kodwa kwasetshenziswa amagama ahlukahlukene angase asho incazelo efanayo noma efanayo. Amagama okusesha asetshenziswe ngokuyinhloko ekutholeni izincwadi afaka phakathi okuthi “ethnic”, “ethno”, “religious”, “religion”, “economic”, “economy”, kanye “nezingxabano”. Lokhu kuhlanganiswe nezimvume ezihlukahlukene namanye amagama okusesha njengamagama okusesha e-Boolean kusizindalwazi.
Ngokwe-Oxford English Dictionary Online, elithi “ethno-” lichazwa njengokulandelayo ngezigaba “eziphelelwe yisikhathi”, “zakudala”, kanye “nezingavamile” ezikhishiwe ngezinjongo zalolu cwaningo: “Isetshenziswa emagameni ahlobene nocwaningo lwabantu noma amasiko. , siqanjwe ngokuthi (a) ukuhlanganisa amafomu (njenge- ethnography n., ethnology n., njll.), kanye (b) namabizo ( as ethnobotany n., ethnopsychology n., njll.), noma okuphuma kulo” ( Oxford English Dictionary , 2019e). “Ethnic” ichazwa kulezi zincazelo, iphinde isuse ukuhlukaniswa okungajwayelekile, “njengebizo: ekuqaleni futhi ikakhulukazi. Umlando Wasendulo WamaGreki. Igama elisho ubuzwe noma indawo yendabuko”; futhi “ekuqaleni US Ilungu leqembu noma iqembu elincane elithathwa njengelozalo oluvamile, noma elinesiko elifanayo lesizwe noma lamasiko; esp. ilungu leqembu elincane.” Njengesiphawulo, “uhlanga” luchazwa ngokuthi “ekuqaleni Umlando Wasendulo WamaGreki. Igama elithi: elisho ubuzwe noma indawo yendabuko”; futhi “Ekuqaleni: noma okuhlobene nabantu ngokuphathelene nozalo lwabo (lwangempela noma olucatshangwayo). Manje ngokuvamile: noma okuhlobene nemvelaphi yesizwe noma yamasiko noma isiko”; “Ukuqoka noma okuhlobene nobudlelwano phakathi kwamaqembu ahlukene abantu bezwe noma isifunda, isb. lapho kukhona ubutha noma ukungqubuzana; okwenzeka noma okukhona phakathi kwalawo maqembu, ezizwe ngezizwe”; “Eqenjini labantu: elithathwa njengenzalo efanayo, noma isiko elivamile lesizwe noma lamasiko”; “Ukuklama noma okuhlobene nobuciko, umculo, ukugqoka, noma ezinye izici zesiko leqembu elithile lesizwe (isb. elingelona elaseNtshonalanga) noma lamasiko noma isiko; imodeli noma ihlanganisa izici zalezi. Ngakho: (-colloquial) angaphandle, angaphandle”; Ukuqoka noma okuhlotshaniswa neqembu elincane labantu (ngaphakathi kweqembu lesizwe noma lamasiko) elithathwa njengelinozalo olufanayo noma isiko lesizwe noma lamasiko. E-United States ngezinye izikhathi i-spec. ukuqoka amalungu amaqembu amancane okungebona abansundu. Manje kuvame ukucatshangelwa kuyacasula”; "Ukuqoka imvelaphi noma ubuwena besizwe ngokuzalwa noma ngozalo kunokuba ngobuzwe bamanje" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019d).
Ucwaningo olumayelana nokuthi okuguquguqukayo, “inkolo”, kuhileleke kanjani ezingxabanweni ezinodlame kuyangabazeka ngezizathu ezine (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Indaba yokuqala ukuthi kunobunzima ekukhetheni phakathi kwemibono ezama ukuchaza izingxabano ezinodlame (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Kushicilelo lwesibili, ubunzima busuka emikhawulweni ehlukene echazayo mayelana nodlame nokungqubuzana (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Kuze kube ngama-1990s, impi kanye nokungqubuzana kodlame lwamazwe ngamazwe ngokuyinhloko bekusendaweni yesihloko sobudlelwano bamazwe ngamazwe nokuvikeleka kanye nezifundo zamasu nakuba izingxabano zodlame lwangaphakathi kwesifunda zanda kakhulu ngemva kwawo-1960 (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Udaba lwesithathu luhlobene nezinhlaka eziguqukayo mayelana nokukhathazeka komhlaba wonke ngodlame emhlabeni kanye nesimo sokushintsha kwezingxabano zamanje (Feliu & Grasa, 2013). Umagazini wokugcina ubhekisele esidingweni sokuhlukanisa phakathi kwezinhlobo eziyimbangela njengoba ukungqubuzana kodlame kuqukethe izingxenye eziningi ezihlukene nezixhumene, kuyashintsha, futhi kuwumkhiqizo wezinto eziningi (Cederman & Gleditsch, 2009; Dixon, 2009; Duyvesteyn, 2000; Feliu & Grasa, 2013; Themnér & Wallensteen, 2012).
Igama elithi “inkolo” lichazwa njengesiphawulo kulawa magama ngezigaba ezingasetshenzisiwe ngokujwayelekile: “Okomuntu noma iqembu labantu: ababoshwe izifungo zenkolo; okungowe-oda lezindela, isb. eSontweni LamaRoma Katolika”; “Okwento ethile, indawo, njll.: okuyingxenye noma exhumene nohlelo lwezindela; izindela”; “Ngokuyinhloko yomuntu: ozinikele enkolweni; ekhombisa imiphumela yenkolo engokomoya noma engokoqobo, elandela izidingo zenkolo; abangcwele, abamesabayo uNkulunkulu, abazinikele”; “Okuhlobene, noma okuphathelene nenkolo” kanye “nokucophelela, okuqondile, okuqinile, okunonembeza. Ekuchazeni igama elithi “inkolo” njengebizo, kufakwe izigaba ezilandelayo zokusetshenziswa okujwayelekile: “Abantu ababoshwe izifungo zezindela noma abazinikele empilweni yenkolo, isb. eSontweni LamaRoma Katolika” kanye “Umuntu oboshwe izifungo ezingokwenkolo noma ozinikele ekuphileni okungokwenkolo, sib. eSontweni LamaRoma Katolika” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019g).
“Inkolo” ichazwa, kuhlanganiswe nezigaba zokusetshenziswa okuvamile, “njengesimo sokuphila esiboshwe izifungo zenkolo; isimo sokuba yingxenye yenkolo; “Isenzo noma ukuziphatha okubonisa ukukholelwa, ukulalela, nokuhlonipha unkulunkulu, onkulunkulu, noma amandla afanayo angaphezu kwawomuntu; ukwenziwa kwemikhuba yenkolo noma imikhosi” lapho kuhlanganiswa nokuthi “Ukukholelwa noma ukuvuma amandla noma amandla athile angaphezu kwawomuntu (isb. unkulunkulu noma onkulunkulu) ngokuvamile abonakaliswa ngokulalela, inhlonipho, nokukhulekela; inkolelo enjalo njengengxenye yesistimu echaza ikhodi yokuphila, njll. njengendlela yokuzuza intuthuko engokomoya noma yezinto ezibonakalayo”; kanye “nohlelo oluthile lokukholwa nokukhulekela” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019f). Incazelo yokugcina isetshenziswe kulokhu kusesha kwezincwadi.
Amagama okusesha, “umnotho” kanye “nomnotho” asetshenziswe ekusesheni imininingwane. Igama elithi, “umnotho”, ligcina izincazelo eziyishumi nanye (11) ku-Oxford English Dictionary (2019c). Incazelo efanele yokusetshenziswa kwalokhu kuhlaziya imi kanje: “Inhlangano noma isimo somphakathi noma isizwe maqondana nezici zomnotho, isb. ukukhiqizwa kanye nokusetshenziswa kwezimpahla namasevisi kanye nokuhlinzekwa kwemali (manje ngokuvamile nge the); (futhi) uhlelo oluthile lwezomnotho” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019). Mayelana negama elithi, "ezomnotho", incazelo elandelayo isetshenziswe ekusesheni izindatshana ezifanele: "O, okuhlobene, noma okuphathelene nesayensi yezomnotho noma umnotho uwonke” kanye “nokuhlobene nokuthuthukiswa nokulawulwa kwezisetshenziswa ezibonakalayo zomphakathi noma zombuso” (English Oxford Dictionary, 2019b).
Amagama, “ushintsho lwezomnotho”, abhekisela ezinguqukweni ezincane zenani emnothweni, kanye “noguquko lomnotho”, okubonisa ushintsho olukhulu lwanoma yiluphi uhlobo/uhlobo emnothweni ohluke ngokuphelele, nawo abhekwa njengamagama okusesha ocwaningo (Cottey, 2018, ikhasi 215). Ngokusebenzisa le migomo, iminikelo ifakiwe engavamile ukufakwa emnothweni (Cottey, 2018).
Okucatshangelwe kulolu cwaningo ngokusebenzisa amagama okusesha kwakuyizindleko zezomnotho eziqondile nezingaqondile zokungqubuzana. Izindleko eziqondile izindleko ezingasetshenziswa ngokushesha engxabanweni futhi zifaka phakathi ukulinyazwa kwabantu, ukunakekelwa kanye nokuhlaliswa kabusha kwabantu abafudukayo, ukucekelwa phansi nokulimala kwezinsiza ezibonakalayo, kanye nezindleko eziphakeme zempi nezokuphepha zangaphakathi (Mutlu, 2011). Izindleko ezingaqondile zibhekisela emiphumeleni yokungqubuzana njengokulahlekelwa kwenani labantu ngenxa yokufa noma ukulimala, imali engenayo ewumphumela wokutshalwa kwezimali okuyehlisiwe, indiza enkulu, ukufuduka kwabasebenzi abanamakhono, kanye nokulahlekelwa okungaba khona ukutshalwa kwezimali kwamanye amazwe kanye nemali yezivakashi (Mutlu, 2011 ). Abantu abahilelekile ekungqubuzaneni bangase balahlekelwe ukulahlekelwa okubangelwa ukucindezeleka kwengqondo nokuhlukunyezwa kanye nokuphazamiseka kwemfundo (Mutlu, 2011). Lokhu kuphawulwe ocwaningweni lukaHamber noGallagher (2014) oluthole ukuthi izinsizwa zaseNyakatho ne-Ireland zeza ngaphambili nezinkinga zempilo yenhlalo nengqondo, nokuthi inombolo ebika ngokuzilimaza, ehlangabezana nemicabango yokuzibulala, ezifaka engozini noma imizamo yokuzibulala. “kwakwethusa” (ikhasi 52). Ngokwabahlanganyeli, lokhu kuziphatha okubikiwe kubangelwa “ukucindezeleka, ukucindezeleka, ukukhathazeka, ukulutheka, okucatshangwa ukuthi ungelutho, ukuzethemba, ukuntuleka kwamathemba okuphila, ukuzizwa unganakiwe, ukuphelelwa ithemba, ukuphelelwa ithemba nokusongelwa kanye nokwesaba ukuhlasela kwamasosha” (Hamber & Gallagher , 2014, ikhasi 52).
“Ukungqubuzana” kuchazwa ngokuthi "ukuhlangana nezingalo; ukulwa, impi”; “umzabalazo wesikhathi eside”; ukulwa, ukulwa nezikhali, ukulwa”; “umshikashika wengqondo noma womoya ngaphakathi kumuntu”; "ukungqubuzana noma ukwehluka kwezimiso eziphikiswayo, izitatimende, izimpikiswano, njll."; “ukuphikiswa, kumuntu ngamunye, kwezifiso ezingahambelani noma izidingo zamandla alinganayo; futhi, isimo esingokomzwelo esicindezelayo esibangelwa ukuphikiswa okunjalo”; kanye “nokugijima ndawonye, ukungqubuzana, noma umthelela wodlame womzimba womzimba” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2019a). “Impi” kanye “nobuphekula” nazo zisetshenziswe njengamagama okusesha anamagama okusesha ashiwo ngenhla.
Izincwadi ezimpunga azizange zisetshenziswe ekubuyekezweni kwezincwadi. Iziqephu zendatshana ezinombhalo ogcwele kanye nezindatshana ebezingewona umbhalo ogcwele, kodwa ezihlangabezana nezincazelo zezinto eziguquguqukayo ezifanele, zibuyekeziwe. Imalimboleko yokusebenzelana nemitapo yolwazi isetshenziswe ukuze ku-odwe ama-athikili ejenali yezemfundo, abuyekezwe ontanga abengewona umbhalo ogcwele kuzigcinilwazi eziku-inthanethi zezazi.
eNigeria naseCameroon
I-Crisis in Africa, ngokukaMamdani, iyimifanekiso yenhlekelele yezwe langemva kombuso wamakoloni (2001). Ubukoloniyali buhlakaze ubumbano phakathi kwama-Afrika futhi esikhundleni salo kwafakwa imingcele yobuzwe neyezwe (Olasupo, Ijeoma, & Oladeji, 2017). Iqembu lobuhlanga elibusa umbuso libusa kakhulu, futhi ngenxa yalokho izwe langemva kwenkululeko yawa ngenxa yezingxabano phakathi kwezizwe nezizwe (Olasupo et al., 2017).
Inkolo ibiyisici esibalulekile ezingxabanweni eziningi eNigeria kusukela yathola inkululeko ngo-1960 (Onapajo, 2017). Ngaphambi kwengxabano yeBoko Haram, ucwaningo lwathola ukuthi iNigeria ingelinye lamazwe ase-Afrika anenani eliphakeme kakhulu lezingxabano zenkolo (Onapajo, 2017). Amabhizinisi amaningi avalwa eNigeria ngenxa yezinxushunxushu zezenkolo futhi iningi laphangwa noma lacekelwa phansi abanikazi bawo babulawa noma baxoshwa (Anwuloorah, 2016). Njengoba iningi lamabhizinisi amazwe ngamazwe kanye namazwe amaningi ayethuthela kwezinye izindawo lapho ukuphepha kungeyona inkinga, abasebenzi baphelelwa umsebenzi futhi imindeni yathinteka (Anwulorah, 2016). UFoyou, Ngwafu, Santoyo, no-Ortiz (2018) baxoxa ngomthelela wezomnotho wobuphekula eNigeria naseCameroon. Ababhali bachaza ukuthi ukungena kweBoko Haram ngaphesheya kwemingcele ukuya eNyakatho Cameroon “kube nomthelela kanjani ekubhidlikeni kwesisekelo somnotho esintekenteke esigcine izifunda ezintathu ezisenyakatho yeCameroon [eNyakatho, iNyakatho Ekude, kanye ne-Adamawa] futhi kwasongela ukuphepha kwezwe. abantu abangenakuzisiza kulesi sifunda” (Foyou et al, 2018, p. 73). Ngemuva kokuthi ukuhlaselwa kweBoko Horam kuwele eNyakatho Cameroon kanye nezingxenye zeChad neNiger, iCameroon yagcina isize iNigeria (Foyou et al., 2018). Ubuphekula beBoko Haram eNigeria, obuholele ekufeni kwezinkulungwane zabantu okuhlanganisa amaSulumane namaKrestu, nokucekelwa phansi kwempahla, ingqalasizinda kanye namaphrojekthi entuthuko, busongela “ukuphepha kwezwe, kubangela inhlekelele yabantu, ukuhlukumezeka kwengqondo, ukuphazamiseka kwemisebenzi yesikole, ukuntuleka kwemisebenzi. , kanye nokwanda kobumpofu, okuholela emnothweni obuthakathaka "(Ugorji, 2017, p. 165).
I-Iran, i-Iraq, iTurkey neSiriya
Impi yase-Iran ne-Iraq yadonsa kusukela ngo-1980 kuya ku-1988 ngenani eliphelele lezomnotho kuwo womabili la mazwe ama-dollar ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingu-1.097, afundeka njengesigidigidi esi-1 kanye namaRandi ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingu-97 (Mofrid, 1990). Ngokuhlasela i-Iran, “uSaddam Hussein wafuna ukulungisa amaphuzu nomakhelwane wakhe ngokubonakala kokungalingani kweSivumelwano sase-Algiers, ayexoxisane ngaso noShah wase-Iran ngo-1975, kanye nokwesekwa kuka-Ayatollah Khomeini emaqenjini aphikisayo amaSulumane aphikisana nohulumeni wase-Iraq” (Parasiliti, 2003, p. 152).
I-Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) yanikezwa amandla izingxabano nokungazinzi futhi yaba inhlangano ezimele (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). I-ISIS yathatha ukulawula kwezindawo ezingaphesheya kweSyria, yathuthukela e-Iraq naseLebanon, nasezingxabanweni ezinodlame, yabulala izakhamuzi (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Kube nemibiko "yokubulawa ngobuningi nokudlwengulwa kwamaShi'i, amaKristu, nezinye izinhlanga nezinkolo ezincane" yi-ISIS (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015. p. 1). Kuphinde kwabonwa ukuthi i-ISIS ine-ajenda eyeqa i-ajenda yokuhlukanisa, futhi lokhu kwakuhlukile kunamanye amaqembu amaphekula endaweni yase-Iran (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Okuguquguqukayo okuningi ngaphezu kwezinyathelo zokuphepha kuthinta ukukhula kwedolobha ledolobha, futhi lokhu kufaka phakathi uhlobo lwezinyathelo zokuphepha, ukukhula komnotho kanye nenani labantu, kanye namathuba okuba sengozini (Falah, 2017).
Ngemuva kwe-Iran, i-Iraq inenani elikhulu kunawo wonke lamaShi'i emhlabeni wonke elihlanganisa cishe u-60-75% wama-Iraqis, futhi ibalulekile esu lezenkolo lase-Iran (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Umthamo wokuhweba phakathi kwe-Iraq ne-Iran wawungamadola ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane eziyi-13 (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015). Ukukhula kohwebo phakathi kwe-Iran ne-Iraq kufike ngokuqiniswa kobudlelwano phakathi kwabaholi bamazwe amabili, amaKurds, kanye nemindeni emincane yamaShi'i (Esfandiary & Tabatabai, 2015).
AmaKurds amaningi ahlala endaweni equkethwe e-Iraq, Iran, Turkey, naseSyria ebizwa ngokuthi iKurdistan (Brathwaite, 2014). Amandla obukhosi base-Ottoman, British, Soviet, kanye neFrance alawula le ndawo kwaze kwaba sekupheleni kweWWII (Brathwaite, 2014). I-Iraq, i-Iran, iTurkey, ne-Syria izamile ukucindezela amaKurd amancane ngezinqubomgomo ezihlukahlukene eziholele ezimpendulo ezahlukene ezivela kumaKurds (Brathwaite, 2014). Abantu baseSyria abangamaKurd abazange bahlubuke kusukela ngo-1961 kwaze kwaba yilapho kuvukela umbuso we-PKK ngo-1984 futhi akukho ngxabano eyasakazeka isuka e-Iraq yaya eSyria (Brathwaite, 2014). AmaKurds aseSyria ajoyine izinhlanga zawo ezingqubuzana ne-Iraq kanye neTurkey esikhundleni sokuqala ukungqubuzana neSyria (Brathwaite, 2014).
Isifunda sase-Iraqi Kurdistan (KRI) sibe noshintsho olukhulu kwezomnotho kule minyaka eyishumi edlule, okuhlanganisa nenani elikhulayo lababuyayo kusukela ngo-2013, unyaka obone ukukhula komnotho e-Iraqi Kurdistan (Savasta, 2019). Okuthinta amaphethini okufuduka e-Kurdistan kusukela maphakathi nawo-1980 ukufuduka phakathi nomkhankaso we-Anfal ngo-1988, ukufuduka okubuyayo phakathi kuka-1991 no-2003, kanye nokufudukela emadolobheni ngemva kokuwa kombuso wase-Iraq ngo-2003 (Eklund, Persson, & Pilesjö, 2016). Indawo yezitshalo yasebusika eningi yafakwa kusigaba njengesebenzayo ngesikhathi sokwakha kabusha uma kuqhathaniswa nenkathi yangemva kwe-Anfal ebonisa ukuthi umhlaba othile owalahlwa ngemva komkhankaso we-Anfal ubuyiselwe ngesikhathi sokwakha kabusha (Eklund et al., 2016). Ukwenyuka kwezolimo akukwazanga ukwenzeka ngemuva kwezinswinyo zohwebo phakathi nalesi sikhathi okungase kuchaze ukunwetshwa kwezitshalo zasebusika (Eklund et al., 2016). Ezinye izindawo ezazingalinywa ngaphambilini zaba yizindawo zezitshalo zasebusika futhi kwaba nokwanda kwezitshalo zasebusika ezirekhodiwe eminyakeni eyishumi ngemva kokuphela kwesikhathi sokwakha kabusha kanye nombuso wase-Iraq wawa (Eklund et al., 2016). Ngokungqubuzana phakathi kwe-Islamic State (IS) kanye nohulumeni waseKurdish nowase-Iraq, iziphazamiso phakathi no-2014 zibonisa ukuthi le ndawo isaqhubeka nokuthinteka izingxabano (Eklund et al., 2016).
Ingxabano yama-Kurdish e-Turkey inezimpande zomlando e-Ottoman Empire (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2017). Abaholi bobuhlanga nabezenkolo kufanele bafakwe ekuqondeni le ngxabano yamaKurdish (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2017). Imibono yamaKurds mayelana nokungqubuzana kwaseTurkey kanye nokuqonda kwabantu baseTurkey ngokobuhlanga kanye nezizwe ezengeziwe e-Turkey kubalulekile ukuqonda ukungqubuzana kulo mphakathi (Uluğ & Cohrs, 2016). Ukuvukela kwamaKurd okhethweni oluncintisanayo lwaseTurkey kubonakala ngo-1950 (Tezcur, 2015). Ukwanda kwenhlangano yamaKurd enobudlova nengenalo udlame eTurkey kutholakala esikhathini sangemva ko-1980 lapho i-PKK (Partiya Karkereˆn Kurdistan), iqembu lamaKurdish elivukelayo, iqala impi yabashokobezi ngo-1984 (Tezcur, 2015). Impi yaqhubeka nokudala ukufa ngemva kweminyaka engamashumi amathathu kuqalwe ukuhlubuka (Tezcur, 2015).
Ingxabano yamaKurdish eTurkey ibonakala "njengecala elimele izimpi zombango ze-ethno-nationalist" ngokuchaza ukuxhumana phakathi kwezimpi zombango ze-ethno-nationalist kanye nokucekelwa phansi kwemvelo njengoba izimpi zombango zingase zihlukaniswe futhi zivumele uhulumeni ukuthi enze uhlelo lwakhe lokubhubhisa. ukuvukela umbuso (Gurses, 2012, p.268). Izindleko zezomnotho ezilinganiselwe ezatholwa yiTurkey ekungqubuzaneni nabahlukanisi baseKurd kusukela ngo-1984 futhi kwaze kwaba sekupheleni kuka-2005 kufinyelela ku-$88.1 billion ngezindleko eziqondile nezingaqondile (Mutlu, 2011). Izindleko eziqondile zibangelwa ngokushesha ukungqubuzana kuyilapho izindleko ezingaqondile ziyimiphumela efana nokulahlekelwa yimali yabantu ngenxa yokufa noma ukulimala kwabantu, ukufuduka, indiza enkulu kanye nokutshalwa kwezimali okulahliwe (Mutlu, 2011).
Israel
I-Israel namuhla iyizwe elihlukaniswe yinkolo nemfundo (Cochran, 2017). Sekusondele ukungqubuzana okuqhubekayo phakathi kwamaJuda nama-Arabhu kwa-Israyeli kusukela ngekhulu lamashumi amabili futhi kuqhubeka ekuqaleni kwekhulu lamashumi amabili nanye (Schein, 2017). AbaseBrithani banqoba izwe kuma-Ottomans ngeMpi Yezwe I futhi le ndawo yaba isikhungo esikhulu sokuhlinzeka ngamabutho aseBrithani eWWII (Schein, 2017). Iqiniswe ngaphansi kwegunya laseBrithani kanye nohulumeni wakwa-Israel, i-Israel inikeze izinsiza ezihlukene kodwa ezingalingani kanye nokufinyelela okulinganiselwe kuhulumeni nemfundo yezenkolo kusukela ngo-1920 kuze kube manje (Cochran, 2017).
Ucwaningo olwenziwa nguSchein (2017) luthole ukuthi awukho nowodwa umphumela ophelele wezimpi emnothweni wakwa-Israel. I-WWI, WWII, kanye neMpi Yezinsuku Eziyisithupha yayizuzisa emnothweni wakwa-Israyeli, kodwa “'ukuvukela kwama-Arab' ka-1936-1939, impi yombango ngo-1947-1948, impi yokuqala yama-Arab-Israel kubahlali base-Arab base-Mandatory. I-Palestine, kanye nama-intifada amabili abe nemiphumela emibi emnothweni” (Schein, 2017, p. 662). Imiphumela yezomnotho yempi ngo-1956 kanye nempi yokuqala neyesibili yaseLebanon "yayinomkhawulo omuhle noma omubi" (Schein, 2017, p. 662). Njengoba umehluko wesikhathi eside endaweni yezomnotho kusukela eMpini yokuqala yama-Arab-Israeli kubahlali abangamaJuda basePalestine Eyigunyazayo kanye neMpi Yom Kippur kanye nomehluko wesikhathi esifushane endaweni yezomnotho kusukela eMpini Yezingxabano awukwazi ukunqunywa, imiphumela yezomnotho ayikwazi ukuxazululwa (Schein, 2017).
U-Schein (2017) uxoxa ngemiqondo emibili ekubaleni imiphumela yezomnotho yempi: (1) isici esibaluleke kakhulu kulesi sibalo ukuguquka kwesimo somnotho kusukela empini kanye (2) nokuthi izimpi zangaphakathi noma zombango ziholela ekulimaleni okukhulu kwezomnotho. ukukhula uma kuqhathaniswa nokulahleka kwezimali ezibonakalayo ezivela ezimpini kusukela umnotho wema ngesikhathi sezimpi zangaphakathi noma zombango. I-WWI iyisibonelo soshintsho esimweni sezomnotho kusukela empini (Schein, 2017). Nakuba i-WWI ibhubhisa inhloko-dolobha yezolimo kwa-Israel, uguquko esimweni somnotho ngenxa ye-WWI lwadala ukukhula komnotho ngemva kwempi, futhi ngenxa yalokho iWWI yaba nomthelela omuhle ekukhuleni komnotho kwa-Israel (Schein, 2017). Umqondo wesibili ukuthi izimpi zangaphakathi noma zombango, ezifanekiselwa ama-intifadas amabili kanye 'ne-Arab Revolt', lapho ukulahlekelwa okubangelwa ukungasebenzi komnotho isikhathi eside, kubangele ukulimala okukhulu ekukhuleni komnotho kunokulahlekelwa kwezimali ezibonakalayo ezivela ezimpini. Schein, 2017).
Imiqondo ephathelene nemiphumela yezomnotho yesikhathi eside neyesikhashana yempi ingasetshenziswa ocwaningweni olwenziwe ngu-Ellenberg et al. (2017) mayelana nemithombo emikhulu yezindleko zempi njengezindleko zesibhedlela, izinsizakalo zezempilo yengqondo ukuze kuncishiswe ukusabela kokucindezeleka okukhulu, nokulandelelwa kwe-ambulensi. Lolu cwaningo bekuwukulandelela okuyizinyanga eziyi-18 kwezakhamizi zakwa-Israel ngemuva kwempi yango-2014 eGaza lapho abacwaningi bahlaziya izindleko zezokwelapha ezihambisana nokuhlaselwa kwamarokhethi futhi bahlola izibalo zabantu bezisulu ezifake izicelo zokukhubazeka. Iningi lezindleko phakathi nonyaka wokuqala lalihlobene nokulaliswa esibhedlela kanye nosizo lokunciphisa ukucindezeleka (Ellenberg et al., 2017). Izindleko ze-Ambulatory kanye nokuvuselela zanda ngonyaka wesibili (Ellenberg et al., 2017). Imiphumela enjalo yezezimali esimweni somnotho ayizange ibe khona kuphela ngonyaka wokuqala kodwa iqhubekile nokukhula phakathi nesikhathi eside.
Afghanistan
Kusukela ekuvukeleni umbuso kwamasosha e-People's Democratic Party yase-Afghanistan ngo-1978 kanye nokuhlasela kweSoviet ngo-1979, abantu base-Afghan bahlangabezane neminyaka engamashumi amathathu yodlame, impi yombango, ingcindezelo, kanye nokuhlanzwa kohlanga (Callen, Isaqzadeh, Long, & Sprenger, 2014). Ukungqubuzana kwangaphakathi kuyaqhubeka nokuba nomthelela omubi ekuthuthukisweni komnotho wase-Afghanistan okwehlise ukutshalwa kwezimali kwangasese okubalulekile (Huelin, 2017). Izinto ezehlukene zenkolo nezobuhlanga zikhona e-Afghanistan ezinezizwe eziyishumi nantathu eziphethe izinkolelo ezihlukene eziqhudelana ngokulawula umnotho (Dixon, Kerr, & Mangahas, 2014).
Okuthinta isimo somnotho e-Afghanistan ubufeudalism njengoba bungqubuzana nenqubekelaphambili yezomnotho yase-Afghan (Dixon, Kerr, & Mangahas, 2014). I-Afghanistan isebenza njengomthombo we-87% ye-opium ne-heroin engekho emthethweni emhlabeni kusukela yalahla i-Taliban ngo-2001 (Dixon et al., 2014). Cishe i-80% yabantu base-Afghan ababambe iqhaza kwezolimo, i-Afghanistan ithathwa njengomnotho wezolimo (Dixon et al., 2014). I-Afghanistan inezimakethe ezimbalwa, kanti i-opium iyona enkulu kunazo zonke (Dixon et al., 2014).
E-Afghanistan, izwe elikhungethwe yimpi elinemithombo yemvelo engasiza i-Afghanistan ukuthi inganciki kakhulu ekusizeni, abatshalizimali kanye nemiphakathi ibhekene nezinqubomgomo ezingazweli ukungqubuzana ezivela kuhulumeni nakubatshalizimali (del Castillo, 2014). Ukutshalwa kwezimali okuqondile kwamanye amazwe (i-FDI) kwezimbiwa kanye namasimu ezolimo, kanye nezinqubomgomo zikahulumeni zokweseka lokhu kutshalwa kwezimali, kubangele ukungqubuzana nemiphakathi eyaxoshwa (del Castillo, 2014).
Kulinganiselwa ukuthi iphrojekthi ye-Costs of War e-Watson Institute for International Studies ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwe-US kusuka ku-2001 kuya ku-2011 ngokuhlasela kwe-Iraq, Afghanistan, nePakistan kufinyelele ku-$ 3.2 kuya ku-$ 4 trillion okwakuphindwe kathathu isilinganiso esisemthethweni (Masco, 2013). Lezi zindleko zazihlanganisa izimpi zangempela, izindleko zezokwelapha zomakadebona, isabelomali sokuvikela esisemthethweni, amaphrojekthi osizo oMnyango Wezwe, kanye Nokuphepha Kwezwe (Masco, 2013). Ababhali babhala ukuthi babalelwa ku-10,000 amasosha kanye nosonkontileka base-US asebebulewe kanye nezicelo zokukhubazeka eziyi-675,000 zithunyelwe kumaVeteran Affairs ngoSepthemba 2011 (Masco, 2013). Izisulu zezakhamuzi e-Iraq, Afghanistan, nasePakistan zilinganiselwa okungenani ku-137,000, kanye nababaleki abangaphezu kwezigidi ezingu-3.2 abavela e-Iraq manje abaxoshwa kuso sonke isifunda (Masco, 2013). Iphrojekthi ye-Cost of Wars nayo yafunda ezinye izindleko eziningi ezihlanganisa izindleko zemvelo kanye nezindleko zamathuba (Masco, 2013).
Ingxoxo nesiphetho
Ukungqubuzana kwe-Ethno-religious kubonakala kuthinta amazwe, abantu ngabanye, namaqembu ngezindlela zezomnotho eziqondile nezingaqondile. Lezo zindleko zingalandelelwa ezindlekweni eziqondile, njengoba zibonwa ezihlokweni ezibuyekezwe kulolu cwaningo, kanye nangezingaqondile, njengoba kuboniswa ucwaningo olwalugxile ezifundazweni ezintathu eziseningizimu yeThailand - iPattani, Yala, neNarathiwat (Ford, Jampaklay, & Chamratrithirong, 2018). Kulolu cwaningo oluhlanganisa i-2,053 Muslim intsha yabantu abadala abaneminyaka engu-18-24 ubudala, ababambiqhaza babike amazinga aphansi ezimpawu zengqondo nakuba iphesenti elincane libike "inani elikhulu ngokwanele ukuba likhathazeke" (Ford et al., 2018, p. . 1). Izimpawu zengqondo ezengeziwe kanye namazinga aphansi enjabulo atholakala kubahlanganyeli ababefisa ukuthuthela kwenye indawo ukuze bayoqashwa (Ford et al., 2018). Abahlanganyeli abaningi bachaze ukukhathazeka ngodlame olukhona ekuphileni kwabo kwansuku zonke futhi babike izithiyo eziningi ekuphishekeleni imfundo, okuhlanganisa ukusetshenziswa kwezidakamizwa, izindleko zezomnotho zemfundo, kanye nosongo lodlame (Ford, et al., 2018). Ikakhulukazi, ababambiqhaza besilisa bazwakalise ukukhathazeka mayelana nezinsolo zokubandakanyeka kwabo odlameni nasekusetshenzisweni kwezidakamizwa (Ford et al., 2018). Uhlelo lokufuduka noma ukuyohlala ePattani, Yala naseNarathiwat lwaluhlobene nokuqashwa okukhawulelwe kanye nosongo lodlame (Ford et al., 2018). Kutholwe ukuthi nakuba iningi lentsha liqhubekela phambili nempilo yalo futhi abaningi bekhombisa ukujwayela udlame, ukucindezeleka komnotho okubangelwa udlame kanye nosongo lodlame kuvame ukuba nomthelela ekuphileni kwabo kwansuku zonke (Ford et al., 2018). Izindleko zezomnotho ezingaqondile azikwazanga ukubalwa kalula ezincwadini.
Ezinye izindawo eziningi zemiphumela yezomnotho yokungqubuzana kwe-ethno-religious zidinga ucwaningo olwengeziwe, okuhlanganisa ucwaningo olugxile ekubaleni ukuhlobana mayelana nezingxabano ze-ethno-religious kanye nemiphumela emnothweni, amazwe engeziwe kanye nezifunda ezithile, kanye nobude bezingxabano nomphumela wako. ngokwezomnotho. Njengoba uCollier (1999) elandisa, “Ukuthula kuphinde kuguqule izinguquko eziqukethwe yimpi yombango ethatha isikhathi eside. Okushiwo ukuthi ngemva kokuphela kwezimpi ezinde imisebenzi esengozini yempi ikhula ngokushesha kakhulu: i-generalized peace dividend yandiswa uguquko lokuhlanganisa” (ikhasi 182). Ngemizamo yokwakha ukuthula, ucwaningo oluqhubekayo kule ndawo lubaluleke kakhulu.
Izincomo Zocwaningo Olwengeziwe: Izindlela Zezinhlaka Ezihlukene Ekwakhiweni Kokuthula
Ukwengeza, uma kudingeka ucwaningo olwengeziwe emizamweni yokwakha ukuthula njengoba kuxoxiwe ngakho ngaphambili mayelana nokungqubuzana kwe-ethno-inkolo, iyiphi indlela, izinqubo, nezindlela zethiyori ezisiza kulolo cwaningo? Ukubaluleka kokubambisana kwezinhlanga ezahlukene akunakunakwa ekwakhiweni kokuthula njengoba imikhakha eyahlukene ehlanganisa, kodwa ingagcini lapho, umsebenzi wezenhlalakahle, isayensi yezokuhlalisana kwabantu, ezomnotho, ubudlelwano bamazwe ngamazwe, izifundo zezenkolo, izifundo zobulili, umlando, i-anthropology, izifundo zokuxhumana, kanye nesayensi yezombangazwe. inqubo yokwakha ukuthula ngamasu nezindlela ezahlukahlukene, ikakhulukazi izindlela zethiyori.
Ukukhombisa ikhono lokufundisa ukuxazululwa kwezingxabano kanye nokwakha ukuthula ukuze kwakhiwe ubulungiswa bobuhlanga, bezenhlalakahle, bezemvelo, kanye nezomnotho kuyingxenye yekharikhulamu yemfundo yezenhlalakahle yabasaqalayo nabaphothule. Iziyalo eziningi zihileleke ekufundiseni ukuxazulula izingxabano, futhi ukubambisana kwaleyo mikhakha kungaqinisa inqubo yokwakha ukuthula. Ucwaningo lokuhlaziya okuqukethwe alutholakalanga ngokusesha okuphelele kwezincwadi ezibuyekezwe ngontanga ezikhuluma ngokuxazulula izingxabano ezifundisayo ngokombono wezisebenzi ezihlukahlukene, okuhlanganisa imibono ehlukahlukene, ukuhlukahluka kwezinhlanga ezahlukene kanye nemibono ehlukene, imibono enomthelela ekujuleni, ububanzi, kanye nokunotha kokuxazulula izingxabano kanye izindlela zokwakha ukuthula.
Yamukelwe umsebenzi womsebenzi wezenhlalakahle, umbono we-ecosystems wathuthukiswa kusukela ku-theory yezinhlelo futhi wanikeza uhlaka lomqondo wokukhula kwendlela evamile ekusebenzeni komsebenzi wezenhlalakahle (Suppes & Wells, 2018). Indlela ye-generalist igxile emazingeni amaningi, noma izinhlelo, zokungenelela, okuhlanganisa umuntu ngamunye, umndeni, iqembu, inhlangano, kanye nomphakathi. Emkhakheni wokwakha ukuthula nokuxazululwa kwezingxabano, izwe, izwe, kanye nomhlaba wonke kwengezwa njengamazinga okungenelela nakuba lawa mazinga evamise ukusebenza njengamazinga enhlangano nawomphakathi. Ku Umdwebo 1 ngezansi, izwe, izwe kanye nomhlaba wonke asetshenziswa njengamazinga ahlukene (amasistimu) okungenelela. Lokhu kuqondanisa kuvumela imikhakha eyahlukene enolwazi namakhono okwakha ukuthula nokuxazulula izingxabano ukuthi ingenelele ngokubambisana emazingeni athile, okuholela ekutheni isiyalo ngasinye sinikeze amandla azo ezinhlelweni zokwakha ukuthula nokuxazulula izingxabano. Njengoba kuchaziwe ku Umdwebo 1, indlela yokuhlanganisa imikhakha eyahlukene ayigcini nje ngokuvumela, kodwa ikhuthaza, zonke iziyalo ukuthi zibambe iqhaza enqubweni yokwakha ukuthula neyokuxazulula izingxabano ikakhulukazi ekusebenzeni ngemikhakha eyahlukene njengasekungqubuzaneni kwezizwe nenkolo.
Ukuhlaziywa okwengeziwe kokuxazululwa kwezingxabano zezemfundo nezincazelo zezifundo zokwakha ukuthula nezindlela zokufundisa emsebenzini wezenhlalakahle nezinye iziyalo kuyanconywa njengoba izinqubo ezingcono kakhulu zokwakha ukuthula zingachazwa ngokujulile futhi zihlolwe ukuze kwenziwe imisebenzi yokwakha ukuthula. Okuguquguqukayo okufundiwe kufaka phakathi iminikelo kanye nokugxilwa kwemikhakha efundisa izifundo zokuxazulula izingxabano kanye nokuzibandakanya kwabafundi ekuxazululeni izingxabano zomhlaba wonke. Isiyalo somsebenzi wezenhlalakahle, isibonelo, sigxile ebulungiswa bezenhlalakahle, ubuhlanga, ezomnotho, kanye nemvelo ekuxazululeni izingxabano njengoba kushiwo kuMkhandlu Wezemfundo Yomsebenzi Wezenhlalakahle 2022 Inqubomgomo Yezemfundo kanye Namazinga Okugunyazwa Kwezinhlelo Ze-Baccalaureate kanye Neziqu Zenkosi (ikhasi 9, Umkhandlu Wezenhlalakahle Wezenhlalakahle Imfundo Yomsebenzi, 2022):
Amandla 2: Thuthukisa Amalungelo Esintu Nezenhlalakahle, Ubuhlanga, Umnotho, Nobulungisa Bendawo
Abasebenzi bezenhlalakahle bayaqonda ukuthi wonke umuntu kungakhathaliseki isikhundla emphakathini unamalungelo abantu ayisisekelo. Abasebenzi bezenhlalakahle banolwazi mayelana nokungalungi komhlaba wonke kanye nokuqhubekayo okuqhubekayo emlandweni wonke obangela ukucindezelwa nokucwasa, okuhlanganisa indima yomsebenzi wezenhlalakahle kanye nokuphendula. Abasebenzi bezenhlalakahle bahlolisisa ngokujulile ukusatshalaliswa kwamandla kanye nelungelo emphakathini ukuze kuthuthukiswe ubulungiswa bezenhlalakahle, ubuhlanga, umnotho, kanye nemvelo ngokunciphisa ukungalingani nokuqinisekisa isithunzi nenhlonipho kubo bonke. Abasebenzi bezenhlalakahle bakhuthaza futhi bahlanganyele emasu okuqeda izithiyo zesakhiwo ezicindezelayo ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi izinsiza zomphakathi, amalungelo, kanye nemithwalo yemfanelo zisakazwa ngokulinganayo nokuthi amalungelo oluntu, ezombusazwe, ezomnotho, ezenhlalakahle kanye namasiko avikelekile.
Osonhlalakahle:
a) ukumela amalungelo abantu ezingeni lomuntu ngamunye, umndeni, iqembu, inhlangano, kanye nesistimu yomphakathi; futhi
b) ukuzibandakanya ezenzweni ezithuthukisa amalungelo abantu ukuze kuthuthukiswe ubulungiswa bezenhlalo, ubuhlanga, umnotho, kanye nemvelo.
Ukuhlaziywa kokuqukethwe, okwenziwa ngesampula engahleliwe yezifundo zokuxazulula izingxabano ngezinhlelo zasenyuvesi nekolishi e-United States nasemhlabeni jikelele, kutholwe ukuthi nakuba izifundo zifundisa imibono yokuxazulula izingxabano, izifundo ngokuvamile azinikezwa lezi zihloko ekuqeqesheni umsebenzi wezenhlalakahle kanye naku ezinye iziyalo. Ucwaningo luphinde lwathola ukwehluka okukhulu enanini lemikhakha ehilelekile ekuxazululeni ukungqubuzana, ukugxila kwaleyo mikhakha ekuxazululeni izingxabano, indawo yezifundo nezinhlelo zokuxazulula ukungqubuzana ngaphakathi kwenyuvesi noma ekolishi, kanye nenani nezinhlobo zezifundo zokuxazulula izingxabano nokugxilisana kwazo. Ucwaningo olutholakala ngezindlela ezehlukene, eziqinile, nezisebenzisanayo phakathi kochwepheshe kanye nezinqubo zokuxazulula izingxabano ngamathuba ocwaningo olwengeziwe nezingxoxo e-United States nasemhlabeni jikelele (Conrad, Reyes, & Stewart, 2022; Dyson, del Mar Fariña, Gurrola, & Cross-Denny, 2020; Friedman, 2019; Hatiboğlu, Özateş Gelmez, & Öngen, 2019; Onken, Franks, Lewis, & Han, 2021).
Umsebenzi wezenhlalakahle njengabasebenzi bokwakha ukuthula nokuxazulula izingxabano bazosebenzisa ithiyori ye-ecosystems ezinqubweni zabo. Isibonelo, amaqhinga ahlukahlukene amavukela-mbuso asetshenziswa angenabo udlame ngokwemvelo (Ryckman, 2020; Cunningham, Dahl, & Frugé 2017) asecwaningiwe (Cunningham & Doyle, 2021). Abasebenzi bokwakha ukuthula kanye nezifundiswa baye banaka ukubusa kwamavukelambuso (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021). UCunningham noLoyle (2021) bathole ukuthi ucwaningo olumayelana namaqembu amavukela-mbuso lugxile ekuziphatheni nasezenzweni ezikhonjiswa amavukela-mbuso angekho esigabeni sokulwa, okuhlanganisa ukwakha izikhungo zendawo kanye nokuhlinzeka ngezinsiza zomphakathi (Mampilly, 2011; Arjona, 2016a; Arjona , Kasfir, & Mampilly, 2015). Ukwengeza olwazini oluzuzwe kulezi zifundo, ucwaningo lugxile ekuhloleni amathrendi afaka lezi zimo zokuphatha ezizweni eziningi (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021; Huang, 2016; Heger & Jung, 2017; Stewart, 2018). Kodwa-ke, izifundo zokubusa kwamavukelambuso zivame ukuhlola izindaba zokuphatha ikakhulukazi njengengxenye yezinqubo zokuxazulula izingxabano noma zingagxila kuphela kumaqhinga anobudlova (Cunningham & Loyle, 2021). Ukusetshenziswa kwendlela ye-ecosystem kungaba wusizo ekusebenziseni ulwazi namakhono ezinhlanga ezahlukene ekwakheni ukuthula nezinqubo zokuxazulula izingxabano.
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